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Country Houses 

Wm Paul Geehard 



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THE SA JITATION, WATER SUPPLY 

AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

COUNTRY HOUSES 



The Sanitation, Water Supply 

and Sewage Disposal of 

Country Houses 



By 
WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E. 




NEW YORK: 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STS. 
1909 






Copyright, 1909, by 
D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. 



Stanhope ipress 

r. H. GILSON COMPANY 
BOSTON. U.S.A. 



7-//xvr 



LIBR.ARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

APR 22 H»09 

CLASS GL^ XAc, No, 



PREFACE. 



The first part of the book treats of the general san- 
itation of country houses, brings a comparison of Hfe in 
the city and in the country from a health point of view, 
dwells on the advantages of country life, and gives a 
condensed summary of the essential requirements of 
healthfulness in country houses. The soil, the subsoil, 
surface drainage, aspect, healthful surroundings and 
those which are objectionable, the cellar of the house, 
the lighting, heating and ventilation, the water supply, 
sewerage and plumbing, are briefly discussed. 

In the second part detailed adv-ice is given as to how 
to procure a satisfactory water supply. The sources 
of water, the various modes of raising it, the storage 
in reservoirs, elevated tanks or underground pressure 
tanks, and finally water distribution, are dwelt on at 
length and illustrated by actual examples from the 
author's engineering practice. This part of the book 
is the outcome of a number of lectures given recently 
by the author before the Civil Engineering Section and 
the Engineering Society of the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology. 

The third part discusses the all-important question 
of the sewage disposal for houses not in reach of sewers. 
Particular attention is given to the latest development 
in disposal methods, to the so-called biological or bac- 
terial purification systems, including septic tanks, culti- 



VI PREFACE 

vation tanks, contact filter beds and sprinkling or trick- 
ling filters. 

The illustrations accompanying the descriptions of 
examples of water supply and sewage disposal are 
largely taken from the author's practice. The author 
does not consider it necessary to offer an apology for 
doing this, as the reasons are sufficiently self-evident ; 
but the statement is made in order to anticipate criti- 
cism on the part of reviewers. At the suggestion of his 
publishers, however, a few examples of water supply 
and sewage disposal plans from the practice of other 
engineers and engineering contractors have been added. 
In the list of illustrations the source from which they 
are taken is given. 

Throughout the book the aim of the author has been 
to inform and tell his readers *'what to do" rather 
than "How to do it." In other words, he has en- 
deavored to establish leading sanitary principles which 
in turn should lead to correct sanitary practice. He 
thought it best to omit from the book many details 
regarding the execution of sanitary methods, thereby 
perhaps avoiding the encouragement of "amateur sani- 
tary engineering," which is quite frequently met with 
nowadays, and which generally leads to dismal failures. 

THE AUTHOR. 

33 Union Square, New York. 
February, 1909. 



CONTENTS 



I. SANITATION 

Page 

Essentials of Sanitation in Dwellings i 

Disadvantages of Town Houses 3 

Suburban and Country Houses 4 

Location and Site 7 

Surroundings 8 

Sunlight and Aspect 9 

Character of Soil 10 

Subsoil Drainage 11 

Removal of Surface Water 12 

Ground Air 13 

Cellar Floors 13 

Dampness of Cellar Walls 14 

Light and Air in Cellars 15 

Arrangement of Rooms 16 

Some Details of Sanitary Construction: Materials, Wall Surfaces, 

Floors, Windows, Furnishings 18 

Window and Door Screens 21 

Flies and Mosquitoes as Carriers of Disease 23 

Flies 23 

Mosquitoes 24 

Practical Suggestions for the Extermination and Control of Mos- 
quitoes and Flies: Flies 26 

Mosquitoes 27 

Lighting 29 

Ventilation 35 

Methods of Warming 36 

Open Fireplaces 37 

Ventilating Fireplaces 38 

Stoves 38 

Warm-Air Furnaces 39 

Fresh-Air Conduits 41 

Flues and Registers 41 

vii 



Vlil CONTENTS 

Page 

Ventilation by Means of Open Fireplaces 42 

Water Supply 43 

Wells 44 

Driven or Tube Wells 45 

Rain Water Cisterns 45 

Springs 47 

Filtration of Water 47 

Service Pipes 49 

Plumbing Work 50 

Arrangement of the Bathroom 51 

Soil Pipes, Waste Pipes and Traps 52 

Arrangement of the Supply Pipes 54 

Water Tanks 54 

Plumbing Fixtures 55 

Sewerage. 60 

Sewage Disposal 62 

Leaching Cesspools 63 

Tight Cesspools 64 

Sewage Irrigation 65 

Earth-closets 65 

Slopwater Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation 67 

Garbage Disposal 69 

Household Garbage 70 

Hints on the Care of the House 73 

Dusting and Sweeping 76 

The Care of Plumbing Work 78 

House Disinfection 81 



II. WATER SUPPLY 

Engineering Advice 85 

Points of Importance in Studying Problems of Water Supply. . 85 

Springs 88 

Wells 91 

Wells in Rock 92 

Shallow Wells 94 

Contamination of Wells 96 

Driven or Tube Wells 98 

Deep Wells 98 

Artesian Wells 102 

Blowing Wells 105 



CONTENTS IX 

Page 

Wells with Two Kinds of Water 105 

Freezing of Wells 105 

Specifications for Wells 107 

Water Finders 114 

Collecting Galleries 116 

Rain Water and Cisterns 117 

Brooks and Streams 119 

Lakes 121 

Impounded Surface Water 123 

Legal Considerations 124 

Rights of Way and Easements 126 

Gravity and Pumping Supply 126 

Quality of Water 127 

Water Analyses 127 

Sanitary Inspection of Sources of Supply 127 

Quantity 1 28 

Amount of Water Used 128 

W'ater Pressure 130 

Supply System 131 

Pumping Water .^ 132 

Motors 132 

Slm.ple Water-lifting Devices 133 

Pumps . 133 

Hand Pumping 134 

Windmills 135 

Hydraulic Rams 137 

Water Wheels 138 

Gas Pumping Engines 140 

Oil Pumping Engines 142 

Gasoline Pumping Engines 143 

Hot-Air Pumping Engines 144 

Steam Pumps 145 

Air-Lift Pump 146 

Electric Pumps 147 

Centrifugal Pumps 150 

Deep- Well Pumping Machinery 150 

Pumps in General 151 

Reservoirs and other Means for Storage of Water 152 

Elevated Tanks 154 

Tank Towers 154 

Wooden Tanks 156 



X CONTENTS 

Page 

Iron Tanks 157 

Wooden versus Iron Tanks 158 

Standpipes 158 

Inside or House Tanks 159 

Pressure Tanks 159 

The Acme Water Supply and Storage System 160 

Water Distribution 162 

Outside Pipe System 164 

Inside Water Distribution Pipe System 164 

General Arrangement of Water Pipes. 165 

Hot Water Supply 166 

Material for Supply Pipes 166 

Water Supply for Fire Protection 166 

Outside Fire Hydrants 167 

Portable Fire Engine 168 

Inside Fire Standpipes 169 



Examples of Water Supply Systems 

I. Water Supply System for a Country House by Two Hydraulic 

Rams 169 

II. Water Supply and Fire Protection System of a Large Hotel 

Building 171 

III. Water Supply System for a Country House, with a Pressure 

Tank Installation 176 

IV. Water Supply System for a Country House, with Pressure 
Tank Installation and Electrically-Driven Pump and Com- 
pressor 185 

V. Water Supply System for a Country Estate, Comprising House, 

Stable, Barn, and Grounds, with Gasoline-Engine Driven 

Pump and Compressor, and with Auxiliary Electric Motor 188 

VI. Water Supply System for a Country Estate, by Pressure 

Tanks for Water and Air, Pumps Operated by Gasoline 

Engines 191 

VII. Water Supply Systems for Two Large Institutions 200 

VIII. Water Supply by the Air-Lift System 200 

IX. Water Supply by Large Rife Hydraulic Engine 203 

X. Example of a Reinforced Concrete Water Storage Tank.. . . 208 
XL Water Supply System for a Country Estate 210 



CONTENTS XI 

m. SEWAGE DISPOSAL 

Page 

The Sewage Question for Isolated Houses and Village Dwellings 217 

Evils of Cesspools and Privy Vaults 217 

Sewage Disposal for Detached Houses 218 

Earth Closets 218 

Slopwater Disposal 219 

Subsurface Irrigation 220 

Sewage Tanks and Ordinary Cesspools compared 221 

Examples of Simple Subsurface Irrigation Systems 222 

Sewerage for Village Houses 222 

Sewage Disposal for Farm and Country Houses and for Summer 

Resorts 224 

Essentials of Health in the Country 224 

Unsanitary Conditions in the Country 224 

Sanitary Conveniences for Farmers 225 

Water Supply, Sanitary Plumbing, and Waste Disposal 226 

Sewage Disposal 227 

Cesspools and Privy Vaults to be Condemned 227 

Burning of Sewage Impracticable 228 

Waste Disposal for Small Farm Houses, having no Water Service 229 

Waste Disposal for Larger Farm Houses with Water Service 231 

Sewage Disposal for Large Country Houses 232 

Water Pollution by the Sewage from Summer Resorts 232 

Principles of Sewage Disposal 233 

Application of the Principles 234 

Sewage Disposal for Village Houses 235 

Sewerage Systems 235 

Sewage Disposal Methods 236 

Typhoid Fever Due to Contaminated Water Supplies. 237 

Pollution of Lakes and Streams 237 

State Laws to be Enacted to Prevent Water Contamination 238 

Sewage Purification the Remedy for Water Pollution 239 

Bacterial Methods of Sewage Disposal for Farm Houses, Country 

Estates and Summer Resorts 239 

Land Treatment 240 

Subsurface Irrigation 240 

Disposal of Sewage by Dilution 242 

Artificial Bacterial Sewage Treatment 242 

Composition of Sewage 242 

Principles of Biological Sewage Disposal Methods 245 

Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria 245 



Xll CONTENTS 

Pack 

Two Stages of Purification 245 

Mouras' Automatic Sewage Tank 246 

Septic and Cultivation Tanks 246 

Septic or Scum Tank 247 

Cultivation or Upward Filtration Tank 248 

Septic and Cultivation Tank EfHuents 248 

Work of the Septic Tank 249 

Size of the Septic Tank 250 

Open and Covered Septic Tanks 250 

Gases Generated in Septic Tanks 251 

Contact Filter Beds and Trickling Filters 251 

Bacterial Contact Filter Beds 252 

Purification Process of Contact Beds 253 

Depth and Character of Filling Material in Contact Beds 254 

Capacity of Contact Filter Beds and Mode of Filling Bed with 

Sewage 254 

Automatic Appliances for Operating Contact Filter Beds 255 

Sprinkling or Trickling Sewage Filters 257 

Methods of Operating Trickling Sewage Filters 258 

Advantages of Trickling Sewage Filters 259 

Subsequent Treatment 259 

Applicability of the Different Methods Described 259 

Care and Management of Sewage Disposal Plants 260 



Examples of Sewage DispoGal Systems for Country Houses 

I. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of a Septic Tank with a 

Coarse Filter Bed and Subsequent Subsurface Irrigation 262 
II. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of Septic Tank with 
Primary and Secondary Filter Beds followed by Sub- 
surface Irrigation 266 

III. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of a Septic Tank and 

a Cultivation Tank with Subsequent Sewage Disposal by 
Subsurface Irrigation 268 

IV. Sewage Disposal by Combination of Septic Tank with Four 

■Contact Filter Beds to be used Alternately 272 

V. Sewage Disposal by Combination of Septic Tank and 

Trickling Filter, with Hand Operation 274 

VI. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank for a Large Building or a 
Group of Buildings located either on the Shore of a 
River which is not used for Drinking Purposes, or on a 
Tidal Estuary which does not contain Oyster Beds, or 
near the Ocean 277 



CONTENTS 



Xiu 



Page 
Vn. Sewage Disposal for a Large Building Located on the Slop- 
ing Shore of an Inland Lake 279 

\TII. Sewage Disposal for a Large Hotel by Means of Septic 

Tank and Four Contact Beds 285 

IX. Trickling Sewage Filters 288 

X. Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation for a Country 

^Mansion 290 

XL Sewage Disposal for a Country Estate: by Septic and Culti- 
vation Tank, followed by Subsurface Irrigation; Stable 
Sewage Treated by Septic Tank and Three Artificial 

Gravel Filter Beds 290 

XII. Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation 294 

XIII. Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation 300 

XIV. Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation 301 

XV. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank and Contact Bed 302 

XVI. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank and Trickling Filter. . . . 306 
XVII. Example of a Small, Economically-Built Subsurface Irriga- 
tion System 308 

XVIII. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank with Automatic Sewage 

Lift 310 

XIX. Sewage Disposal for a Manufacturing Plant 312 

XX. Sewage Disposal for a Country Estate 314 

XXI. Sewage Disposal for a Village, by Septic Tank and Contact 

Beds with Air- Lock Automatic Siphon 318 

XXII. Sewage Disposal for a Hospital for Insane 321 

XXIII. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank and Contact Bed 

(Cameron System) 323 

XXIV. Several Schemes for Sewage Disposal for a Country 

Mansion 327 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fig. Page 

1. A spring as a source of water supply 88 

{From a photograph.) 

2. A spring issuing from rock 89 

{From a Report of the U.S. Geol. Survey.) 

3. A dug shallow well 94 

{From author's original drawing) 

4. A shallow driven or tube well 94 

{From author's original drawing.) 

5. A bucket or draw well 95 

{From photograph taken by the author.) 

6. Water supply from a series of wells 99 

{From author's original plan.) 

7. Connection between a battery of wells and pumping station.. . loi 

{From author's original drawing.) 

8. A flowing or true artesian well 103 

{From a Report oj the U.S. Geol. Survey.) 

9. Collecting galleries or conduits for underground water 116 

{From author's original drawing.) 

ID. A brook flowing through manured fields 119 

{From a photograph.) 

11. Upland brook as a source of supply 120 

{Photograph bought from, and copyrighted by, the Detroit Photographic 
Company) 

12. Mountain lake as a source of supply 122 

{Photograph bought from, and copyrighted by, the Detroit Photographic 
Company) 

13. Windmill for pumping water to tank on same tower 135 

{From Corcoran' s catalogue oj windmills) 

14. Windmill for pumping water, tank located elsewhere 135 

15. Improved form of hydraulic ram 137 

{From photograph supplied by the Power Specialty Company) 

16. Downstream view of waterwheel used for pumping water 139 

{From author's article on Water Supply for Farm and Country House, in 
the Country Calendar) 

17. Upstream view of waterwheel (same source as No. 16) 139 

XV 



XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

i8. Gas engine for pumping water 141 

{From illustration supplied by the Deming Pump Company.) 

19. Oil engine and pump connected by gearing 142 

20. Rider hot-air engine 144 

{From illustration supplied by the Rider Pump Company) 

21. Three forms of air-lift pumps 146 

{From catalogue on Air-Li jt Apparatus). 

22. Electric screw pump 148 

{From photograph supplied by Quimby Screw Pump Company) 

23. Electric triplex pump 149 

{From illustration supplied by Deming Pump Company ) 

24. Electric multi-stage centrifugal pump 150 

{From illustration supplied by W orthington Pump Company ) 

25. Deep-well pump 151 

{From a catalogue on Deep-Well Pump Machinery) 

26. Covered underground reservoir of concrete masonry 153 

{From author's original drawing) 

27. Elevated tank, wood, steel tower 155 

{From photograph supplied by Caldwell Tank Company) 

28. Elevated tank, wood, wooden tower 155 

{From photograph supplied by Caldwell Tank Company) 

29. Iron tank, steel tower 155 

{From catalogue of Chicago Bridge and Iron Company ) 

30. Improved form of tank bottom 157 

{From author's original drawing) 

31. A simple pressure tank system 160 

{From author's article on Water Supply for Farm and Country House, in 
the Country Calendar) 

32. Diagram illustrating the "Acme" pressure tank system 162 

{From Catalogue of Acme Water Storage and Construction Company) 

^T,. "Acme" water supply system with water and compressed air 

tanks 163 

{From article on '^Acme System" in The Engineering Record.) 

34. A water supply system from two hydraulic rams 170 

{From author's original drawing) 

35. View of mountain hotel 172 

{From a photograph) 

36. View of the two electrically operated pumps 173 

{From a photograph) 

37. Plan showing water mains of hotel 174 

{From author's original plan) 

38. Reservoir and dam with gravity supply main 175 

{From a photograph) 

39. View of fire stream from hydrant 176 

{From a photograph) 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVll 

Fig. ' Page 

40. Plan of a pressure tank water supply system 177 

{From author's original plan.) 

41. View of the pumping station at the lake 179 

{From a photograph.) 

42. Plan of pumping station showing pumping machinery and the 

water and air tanks 180 

{From author's original plan.) 

43. Interior view of pump house, showing engine, pumps and air 

compressor 181 

{From a photograph taken by the Acme Water Storage and Construc- 
tion Company.) 

44. Another interior view of pump house 181 

{From a photograph taken by the Acme Water Storage and Construc- 
tion Company.) 

45. Diagrammatic section through the pump house, to illustrate 

working parts of the "Acme" pressure tank system 183 

{From author's original drawing.) 

46. Details of automatic pressure controlling apparatus 184 

{Taken partly from a catalogue, partly jrom a photograph.) 

47. Plan of water supply by pressure tank for a large country place 185 

{From author's original plan.) 

48. Plan of underground pump house, with pumping machinery 

and tanks 186 

{From author's original plan.) 

49. Cross section through pump house 187 

{From author's original drawing.) 

50. Longitudinal section of pump house 187 

{From author's original drawing^ 

51. Plan and section of a water softening and pressure tank plant 

for a large country estate 189 

{From author's original drawing.) 

52. Pressure tank water supply system for residence, stable, cottage 

and grounds 190 

{From author's original plan.) 

53. Pressure tank supply system for a large country house and 

garage; pumps located in pump house; tanks in cellar of 
garage 192 

{Prom author's original plan.) 

54. Plan of pump house, showing duplicate machinery 193 

{From author's original plan.) 

55. Plan showing pipe connections between pump house and reser- 

voir 194 

{From author's original plan .) 

56. Plan of cellar of garage, showing location of water and air tanks; 

also section throu-^h tanks 195 

(From author's original plan.) 



XVlli LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

57. Details of water and air tanks 196 

{From a drawing furnished by the Logan Iron Works, Tank Manu- 
facturers.) 

58. View in pump house 197 

{From a photograph taken by the author.) 

59. Plan showing arrangement of water distribution mains for a 

small institution 198 

{From author's original plan.) 

60. Plan showing the water distribution for a large institution 199 

{From author's original plan.) 

61. Water supply by means of the air-lift system 201 

{From an article in The Metal Worker .) 

62. Detail showing method of lifting water from well by the air-lift 

system 201 

{From an article in The Metal Worker.) 

63. Diagram showing essential parts of the air-lift systems of water 

supply 202 

{From a Circular of the Worthington Pump Company.) 

64. Water supply by means of a Rife hydraulic engine 203 

{From article in Transactions Am. Soc. C. E.) 

65. Detail of large Rife hydraulic engine 204 

{From article in Transactions Am. Soc. C.E.) 

66. Plan showing water supply by ram for United States Navy De- 

partment's coal depot at Narragansett Bay 205 

{From article in Transactions Am. Soc. C. E., redrawn by the author.) 

67. View of a reinforced concrete water tank 209 

{From a circular of the Clinton Wire Cloth Company.) 

68. Plan of country estate showing water supply and sewage dis- 

posal systems 211 

{From an article in The Engineering Record.) 

69. Plan and section of water reservoir 212 

{From an article in The Engineering Record.) 

70. Plan, section and elevations of pumping station 213 

{From an article in The Engineering Record.) 

71. Details of manholes and junction boxes 214 

{From an article in The Engineering Record) 

72. A simple sewage disposal arrangement 222 

{From author's original drawing.) 

73. A simple system of sewage disposal 223 

{From author's original drawing.) 

74. Sewage disposal by septic tank, coarse filter beds and subsurface 

irrigation 263 

{From author's original plans.) 

75. Automatic sewage siphon 264 

{From a photograph, kindly furnished by W aring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

76. Gate or switch chamber and other accessories of sewage tanks. . 265 

{From a photograph, kindly furnished by W aring,Chapman & Farquhar.) 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

Fig. Page 

77. Various forms of drain tiles used in sewage disposal 266 

{From a drawing, prepared by the author jrom various sources.) 

78. Sewage disposal by septic tank, primary and secondary filters 

and subsurface irrigation 267 

{From author's original plans.) 

79. Sewage disposal by septic and cultivation tanks followed by sub- 

surface irrigation 269 

{From author's original plans.) 

80. Plan and sections of septic and cultivation tanks 270 

{From author's original plans.) 

81. Sewage disposal by septic tank and four contact filter beds 272 

{From author's original plans.) 

82. Longitudinal section through septic tank and contact beds. . . . 273 

{From author's original plans.) 

83. Cross-section through contact beds 273 

{From author's original plans.) 

84. Cross section through septic tank and collecting or dosing cham- 

ber 273 

{From author's original plans.) 

85. Plan and elevation of trickling filter 276 

{From author's original plans.) 

86. Sewage disposal by septic tank 278 

{From author's original plans.) 

87. Sewage disposal by septic tank, collecting or dosing chamber and 

by contact filter beds 281 

{From author's original plans.) 

88. Plan and section of contact filter beds for disposal of sewage 

from a large building 283 

{From author's original plans.) 

89. View of contact filter beds, dosing chambers and septic tank for 

a large hotel 285 

{From a photograph.) 

90. Plan and section of septic tank and contact filter beds for a 

large hotel 286 

{From author's original plans.) 

91. View of a large trickling filter with sprinkler in operation 289 

{From a photograph taken in Europe for the author.) 

92. Section through a large trickling filter 289 

{From an article in Zeitschrijt des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure.) 

93. Sewage disposal by subsurface irrigation 291 

{From author's original plan.) 

94. Sewage disposal by septic and cultivation tank followed by sub- 

surface irrigation 292 

{From a plan prepared by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

95. Cross-section through the sewage tanks 293 

{From plan prepared by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar) 



XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

96. Sewage disposal by gravel filtration beds 295 

{From plan prepared by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

97. General view of gravel sewage filter beds in course of construc- 

tion 296 

{From photograph kindly jurnished by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

98. View of one filtration bed, showing construction of underdrains 297 

{From photograph kindly furnished by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

99. View of one filtration bed filled with gravel, with sewage distri- 

bution pipes at top of bed 298 

{From photograph kindly furnished by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar.) 

100. Sewage disposal by subsurface irrigation 299 

{From catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago.) 

loi. Sewage disposal by subsurface irrigation 301 

{From catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago.) 

102. Details of sewage tank 302 

{From catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago.) 

103. Sewage disposal by subsurface irrigation 303 

{From Catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago.) 

104. Sewage disposal by septic tank, contact filter bed and subse- 

quent sand filtration 304 

{From catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago .) 

105. Sewage disposal by septic tank and sprinkling filters 307 

{From catalogue of Pacific Flush Tank Company, Chicago) 

106. A small economically built subsurface irrigation system 309 

{From The American Architect.) 

107. Sewage disposal by sewage lift, septic tank and filtration bed.. . 311 

{From The Metal Worker.) 

108. Sewage disposal by subsurface irrigation for a manufacturing 

plant 313 

{From The Engineering Record) 

109. Sewage tank for house 315 

{From The Engineering Record.) 

no. Layout of subsurface tiles in sewage disposal field 316 

{From The Engineering Record.) 

111. Sewage tank and disposal field for stable 317 

{From The Engineering Record) 

112. Sewage disposal by septic tank and contact filter beds with 

"Air-lock" automatic siphons 319 

{From an article in House and Garden) 

113. Sewage disposal by septic tank and contact beds 324 

{From catalogue of Cameron Septic Tank Company) 

Folding plate. Topographical map of part of country estate, show- 
ing proposed schemes for sewage disposal facing 328 

{From topographical map prepared by Waring, Chapman & Farquhar) 



I. 

SANITATION. 



SANITATION OF COUNTRY HOUSES 



Whoever has the opportunity of planning and build- 
ing for himself a home in the country should bear in 
mind the importance of having not only an attractive 
and comfortably arranged house — be it a cottage or a 
mansion — but, above all else, a healthful house. Upon 
the healthfulness of the home will chiefly depend the 
comfort, well-being, and happiness of its inmates. 

A country home is beautiful, not only in summer but 
at all seasons, and life in the country implies, as a 
rule, the existence of health-favoring natural conditions. 
Hence it is all the more important that the building 
itself, its surroundings, its water supply, drainage, and 
sewage disposal, in a word, all its vital household 
arrangements, should be quite sanitary. 

Essentials of Sanitation in Dwellings. — In a paper on 
" Sanitary Engineering " published in the initial number 
of the America7i Architecty issued on January i, 1876, 
the late Colonel George E. Waring, Jr., an eminent 
authority in sanitary engineering, wrote as follows 
regarding the essential requirements of sanitation for 
dwellings : 

" In the interest of sound building it is of the utmost 
importance that those who are charged with the construction 
of houses, especially for residence, should concern them- 
selves not only with matters of taste, and of economical and 
substantial construction, but with the fulfillment of the chief 
(because the first) purpose of all building, that of providing 



2 SANITATION OF 

protection against influences injurious to health. The first 
use of the house was doubtless to furnish shelter against 
exposure, whose influence would be permanently or tempo- 
rarily injurious to the physical condition for those for whom 
it was prepared. The mere provision of shelter has so 
long been accomplished that this consideration no longer 
enters into the conscious idea of those who build. 

But there has arisen within a comparatively short time, as 
an incident to the adoption of modern household con- 
veniences, the knowledge of other influences to which the 
human frame is subject, which equally demands the wisest 
and most careful attention. 

Every house of any pretension is provided, as a matter of 
course, with certain arrangements for the removal of its 
liquid wastes, which it has been too often the custom of 
architects to treat simply as matters of specification, and 
over which they exercised less personal supervision than was 
given to more conspicuous parts of their work." 

In a paper on " Sanitation of Interiors of Houses" 
read at the International Congress of Hygiene held in 
Paris, in August, 1900, it was held that *'all sanitarians 
are agreed now that pure water, pure air and free and 
abundant light are the three great essential factors indis- 
pensable to the salubrity of a house, and that it follows 
from this that one of the principal objects of the sanitary 
engineer should be to supply the house with pure water 
and salubrious air." 

While agreeing in the main with this statement, I am 
inclined to enlarge on it somewhat, for in my judgment, 
in order to be healthful, a dwelling should fulfill the 
following essential requirements : 

I. It should be dry and free from dampness, be well 
drained, and have the ground air 'carefully excluded 
from it. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 3 

2. It should be well sewered, so that all liquid foul matters 

are nowhere stagnating but are immediately, speedily 
and completely removed. 

3. It should have a sanitary system of plumbing pipes, 

fixtures, and fittings. 

4. It should be well lighted, and have as much sun exposure 

as possible. 

5. It should have a copious supply of pure water, flowing 

under a good pressure and protected in the house from 
all sources of possible contamination. 

6. It should have proper and sufficient means for ventilation, 

and be supplied with pure air in all its parts. 

7. It should be kept clean and free from any nuisances. 

8. It should have healthful surroundings. 

Disadvantages of Town Houses. — Happy the man who 
is the owner of a healthful house in healthful country 
surroundings ! With the modern tendency towards 
concentration of a large population in cities, people in 
moderate circumstances have to content themselves in 
these with living in *' fiats " or apartments, which are 
narrow, crow^ded, gloomy, generally ill-arranged, badly 
ventilated, and which offer httie, if any, of the privacy 
which the smallest cottage home in the suburbs offers. 
The poorer classes are huddled together in wretched 
tenement houses, sometimes so wrongly called the 
^' homes " of the poor. But even the wealthy citizen, 
unless he be a real Croesus, lives in town in a four-story 
house, which has a narrow frontage, with only a few 
window^s, extends far to the rear of the lot, and which 
stands in the midst of a row of similar houses. Such 
city houses can doubtless be made prominent and per- 
haps attractive in outside appearance by giving them a 
richly ornated facade, but they have at best only a 
small yard space for air and light in the rear, while 



4 SANITATION OF 

on the two long sides they are enclosed by other build- 
ings, or possibly they adjoin one of the sky-scraping apart- 
ment houses which are towering up everywhere, depriving 
the streets and the lower buildings of air and sunlight. 

An architectural writer applied the term " stupid city 
homes" to such town dwelling-houses. Bad as their 
outside often is, their interior is many times worse. 
The majority of city houses, unless built within the 
past decade, have radical sanitary defects, which may 
be the contributory cause of preventable illness and 
premature death, and which swell thereby the mortality 
rate of cities. 

Fortunately, however, this is the era of *' rapid tran- 
sit," and the available and ever-increasing means of easy 
communication, by rail and by boat, offer facilities for 
living not too far from the great centers of business, 
and of acquiring an easily accessible home, located at a 
sufficient distance from the heart of a great city. Thus 
people who are fond of a quiet rural life but whose busi- 
ness compels them to go to the city, may enjoy the 
advantages and comforts of a suburban or country 
home, located in a good neighborhood, and in healthful 
surroundings. 

Suburban and Country Houses. — In the following pages 
I offer some general suggestions on domestic sanitation 
which should be of interest and of value to people of 
moderate means who have wisely resolved to reside in a 
detached house in a suburb or in the country. Further 
on in the book the question of water supply for country 
houses and estates is taken up more in detail, while 
the third part discusses the all-important problem of 
the disposal of the sewage of all those buildings which 



COUNTRY HOUSES 5 

cannot avail themselves of a connection with a city 
sewer. 

Among the natural advantages, which a residence in 
the country implies, are the following : There is no over- 
crowding, and no noise from horse-cars, railroads, or 
factories ; there are no dirty streets and no noxious 
smells ; instead, one can breathe pure air and enjoy 
plenty of sunlight and blue skies ; one has also number- 
less wild flowers, wide, green fields and meadows, 
numerous shade trees and fruit orchards ; there is 
plenty of opportunity for healthful exercise ; and instead 
of the never-ceasing noise and turmoil of the busy 
streets of a metropolis, one may hear the song of birds 
and the delightful murmuring of brooks, while the eye 
may rest on the many beauties of the landscape, on 
lakes, forests, hills, meadows, or the ocean. 

Those living in houses already built may not find it 
too late to consider and possibly follow some of my 
suggestions, while those about to build will do well to 
study them with a view of adapting them to their 
special conditions. Even those, whose " ideal home " 
at present exists only in their dreams, should, when they 
decide to commence building operations, carefully medi- 
tate over the advice contained in these paragraphs, and 
endeavor to apply it with profit when the proper time 
arrives. 

The character of the site and of the general surround- 
ings necessarily has a great influence upon the develop- 
ment of the house plans. Consequently, the first step 
toward building should be, not the planning of the 
house, but the selection of a salubrious site. In choos- 
ing a lot, due thought should be given to all sanitary 



6 SANITATION OF 

considerations. After the building lot is selected, the 
architect may proceed with the floor plans, and here 
again, in planning, proper attention should be paid to 
the sanitary arrangements. False economy with regard 
to them always, sooner or later, leads to annoying and 
often serious consequences. 

Among sanitary defects that ought to be studiously 
avoided are those relating to the site or locality, to 
the surroundings, the aspect, and to the character of 
the soil and of the .subsoil. While it is possible to 
improve defects of construction, an error in the loca- 
tion, in the prospect or aspect of the house is beyond 
remedy. Unhealthy conditions found to exist as regards 
the site, the prospect, and aspect should therefore 
always lead to the abandonment of a proposed site. 

But, given a healthful site and desirable surroundings, 
we must study further how to keep the ground, upon 
which the house is erected, and the soil around the 
dwelling, free from dampness and from accumulation of 
organic matter. We must also avoid defective con- 
struction, such as would cause dampness of walls, wet 
cellars, smoky chimneys, rapid decay of building materi- 
als, etc. Furthermore, we must arrange the floor plans, 
not only with reference to comfort and convenience, 
but also with regard to aspect, healthfulness, proper 
exposure to sunlight, ample space in rooms, large 
amount of window surface, proper height of ceilings, 
etc. Intimately connected herewith is the question of 
light and ventilation, and proper means for the effec- 
tive removal of fouled air and for the introduction of 
pure air of a proper temperature. Next comes the 
problem of how to warm our house in the most health- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 7 

ful and economical manner. Again, we have to provide 
for an ample supply of pure water for all domestic 
purposes, and have to select with care and judgment 
the plumbing fixtures of the house, and last, but not 
least, we must devise proper means for the removal 
and disposal of the household wastes, which should be 
accomplished wherever possible, with due regard to 
the utilization of the refuse materials for agricultural 
purposes. 

Location and Site. — The site for a house should re- 
ceive the most careful attention. First of all, the site 
should be dry. Those who build homes in the suburbs 
or in the country are generally not very restricted in 
their selection, and hence may avoid low lands, and the 
neighborhood of swamps, marshes, stagnant ponds, mill 
dams, and polluted creeks. These localities are very apt 
to be damp, chilly, and may breed malarious fevers. A 
location on or near the banks of a river, which is subject 
to periodical flooding, or which has a sluggish flow, can- 
not be considered healthy. Neither should a house 
stand in a ravine or valley. High ground is naturally 
preferred in selecting a building site. But the top of a 
hill would, in many cases, expose a house unnecessarily 
to strong and often cold winds. The best and by far 
the most pleasant location is on a hillside, or on a knoll, 
facing the south or southwest. It is not advisable, 
however, to build a house too close into a rather steep 
hillside, for a building so located will be damp and gen- 
erally unhealthy, owing to the insufficient circulation of 
air around it. As regards trees, it may be said that, 
while it is true that they are pleasant neighbors in 
affording shade in hot weather against the sun, and 



8 , SANITATION OF 

shelter against raw winds, they must not stand too near 
a dwelling. If so, they darken the rooms, prevent the 
entrance of sunlight, deprive the house of proper cur- 
rents of air, and promote dampness of the walls and of 
the cellar. 

In choosing a site for a country home, always remember 
the importance of an ample and pure supply of water 
for domestic purposes. Wherever a supply from a well 
is contemplated, have a few preliminary borings made 
to ascertain the amount and character of the water 
which the proposed well will yield. Borings will, at 
the same time, afford valuable information with regard 
to the level of the ground water. 

If the lot appears wet, examine carefully into the 
best manner of draining it. If no outlet for the subsoil 
drains seems available — although this is not often the 
case — avoid the site. 

Inquire into the direction of the prevailing winds, and 
note if your site affords any shelter against them. You 
may plant a screen of evergreens which will afford such 
a shelter, even in winter time, at the same time adding 
to the beauty of your surroundings. 

Surroundings. — It is important that proper and search- 
ing attention should be paid to the neighborhood where 
one intends to build. A noisy factory, a tannery, soap 
works, rendering establishments, or a railroad station 
are not pleasant neighbors. If the adjoining lots are 
built upon, it is worth while to inspect the buildings 
and their immediate surroundings. If the neighbor has 
a stable in the rear of his house, or perhaps a privy or 
leaching cesspool, the site should be avoided, unless 
there is reason to believe that he can be persuaded to 



COUNTRY HOUSES .9 

appreciate the importance of good sanitary surroundings. 
Unless he feels disposed to cooperate in such matters 
as drainage and sewerage, the future will bring constant 
annoyances arising from nuisances in the neighbor's 
back-yard, no matter how thoroughly one may care for 
one's own sanitary arrangements. However effectually, 
for instance, a well may be guarded against contamina- 
tion from drains or soilpipes, its water may become 
tainted and ultimately cause disease by a hidden con- 
nection or soakage from the neighbor's privy, or from 
his ill-constructed leaky drains. 

Consequently, where land is cheap, it is always best 
to build a small cottage on a large lot ; this cuts off and 
isolates the house from constant annoyances such as I 
have mentioned, besides offering a good chance to plan 
and arrange a small kitchen or vegetable garden ; it will 
also secure air and sunlight and afford better means 
for a proper refuse disposal. Always place the dwelling 
at a distance from the roadway, for this avoids the dust 
in summer, and gives opportunity for planting shade 
trees and shrubs. One more word of advice in regard 
to the site. Where the side of a hill is chosen, examine 
most scrutinously into the drainage of any houses built 
on the hill slope above your site. 

Sunlight and Aspect. — It is desirable that every 
dwelling should be so situated as to receive direct sun- 
light and pure outside air from all four sides ; in other 
words, houses to be truly cheerful and salubrious should 
stand free and detached from one another. This will, 
no doubt, increase the annual coal bill, but it is also 
sure to decrease the annual doctor's bills. Human 
beings need the cheering, purifying, invigorating influ- 



lO SANITATION OF 

ence of the light and warmth of the sun, no less than 
plants do. Therefore, houses should be so placed, with 
regard to the four principal directions of the compass, 
that each side may receive some direct rays of the sun 
for at least a few hours of the day. 

A true northern aspect is bleak and cheerless. A 
southern or southeastern aspect is considered the best 
with us, for in winter time it is less cold and chilly, 
owing to the warmth of the sun, while in summer time 
it receives the cooling southern breezes. In this matter 
of aspect people who build country houses enjoy advan- 
tages which are not available in a city, for the above- 
mentioned desirable features can often be obtained by 
a slight change in the location of the house. It is not, 
moreover, necessary to place a country house parallel to 
the street or road passing in front of it. On the con- 
trary, it generally adds much to the picturesque appear- 
ance of a cottage to have it standing irregularly on the 
lot, especially if the walks leading to it and the lawn or 
flower beds are laid out with a certain regard to tasteful 
landscape architecture. 

Character of Soil. — In selecting the site for a house, a 
loose, porous soil is preferable to ground liable to be 
damp or wet. Pure, dry sand and gravel make excel- 
lent sites for building purposes. Next to these, rocky 
soils may be chosen, which are, as a rule, quite health- 
ful. Clay soils, which are more or less impervious to 
water, and therefore always damp and chilly, and alluvial 
lands, must not be chosen as a site for dwellings. But, 
above all, avoid made land. Although this restriction 
applies more particularly to building lots in towns, it is 
not uncommon, even in the suburbs of large cities, to 



COUNTRY HOUSES XT 

find low ground filled with garbage, rubbish and decay- 
ing vegetable and animal debris, which are prime causes 
of impure air in dwellings. A virgin soil or ground 
which has not before been built upon is, undoubtedly, 
preferable to sites of old, torn-down buildings. If the 
latter must be taken, a detailed and thorough exami- 
nation should be made with respect to the purity of 
the soil. Some lots are literally honeycombed with 
cesspools, privy-holes, or have a network of broken 
drains full of accumulated filth, and the soil is at times 
found to be contaminated from liquid house refuse, or 
by the soakage from barn-yards and stables. A well 
should never be sunk through such formerly occupied 
ground. It is quite important to ascertain, by prehmi- 
nary borings, the level of the ground water, for a high 
water level means continuous dampness, and must be 
abated by thorough under-drainage. 

Subsoil Drainage. — The under-drainage of a site effects 
a permanent lowering of the ground level, and thus 
secures to a proposed dwelling dry foundation walls, and 
absence of dampness from the house interior. To 
remove the subsoil water, small porous, round tile- 
drains, two to three inches in diameter, should be laid 
with open joints at least two feet below the level of the 
cellar floor. The general arrangement of the lines may 
vary somewhat in each case, but ordinarily the branch 
drains can be laid in parallel lines, their distance vary- 
ing from ten to twenty-five feet, according to the 
amount of water to be removed. Wherever springs are 
found, special lines may be required. The trenches 
should be refilled with broken stones or coarse gravel. 
The branch pipes should be collected into a larger main 



12 SANITATION OF 

pipe, and for this a three or four-inch tile pipe will 
answer in most cases. This main drain should be con- 
tinued with proper fall to a ditch, ravine, or water 
course. There must never be any connection between 
the subsoil drains and any foul-water drain or sewer, or 
with a cesspool or sewage tank. 

If the dwelling stands on a hillside, exposed to sub- 
soil water flowing over an impervious stratum, the side 
walls of the house nearest to the hill are very apt to 
be wet, often so much so as to have the subsoil 
water percolate through the cellar walls. In this case, 
the subterranean water vein should be cut off by a blind 
drain, i.e., a trench dug above the house sufficiently deep 
and carried with proper fall diagonally across the lot. 
The trench must be filled with broken stones and 
carried down the hill to some outlet, either an open 
ditch or a brook. 

Removal of Surface Water. — - Attention should be paid 
to the proper removal of surface water. In the case 
of suburban cottages the rain falling upon the roof is 
very frequently collected and stored for use in under- 
ground cisterns. Occasionally a public water supply is 
available, and in such case the cistern is omitted, and 
the roof water is allowed to run away on the surface. 
A large part of it soaks into the ground and thereby 
tends to keep the foundation walls damp and unhealthy. 
To avoid this evil, the grounds surrounding the house 
must be properly graded, in order to shed the water 
away from the walls. At points fairly remote from 
the house the surface water may be permitted to soak 
away into the ground, and the vegetation will help to 
absorb a part of it. In other cases, however, surface 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 3 

channels or gutters must be arranged, especially where 
there is a clay soil. 

Ground Air. — Besides water, the upper layers of the 
soil always contain ground air. This has a tendency 
to rise into the house, especially in winter when heated 
dwellings act as huge chimneys, drawing up large quan- 
tities of air from the ground beneath them. Such 
exhalations, which consist in the case of a pure soil of 
carbonic acid and watery vapor, but which in the case 
of a contaminated soil are largely mixed with gases 
of decomposing organic matter, should be rigidly ex- 
cluded from the interior of houses. For this reason, 
dwellings without a cellar should never be placed 
immediately on the ground, but should be placed on 
piers, arches, or posts, being thus raised sufficiently to 
allow of a large air space and perfect circulation 
between the ground surface and the floor beams. This 
will, at the same time, prevent the quick rotting of 
the joists and floor boards. In order to avoid a cold 
basement, its flooring should be laid double, and an 
intermediate space provided, to be filled with a non- 
conducting material, such as mineral wool. 

Cellar Floors. — Although somewhat more expensive, 
it is advisable to excavate for a cellar and to build the 
house on strong, well-made foundation walls. The floor 
of the cellar must be made perfectly tight against 
ground water and ground air. There are different 
ways of doing this. One of the best methods is the 
following : Cover the surface of the cellar, which has 
previously been levelled, with a layer of large broken 
stones and on top of these put concrete, at least four 
or, better, six inches deep. Next put on a thin layer 



14 SANITATION OF 

(about one-quarter inch) of hot, pure asphaltum, and 
on top of this a finishing coat, one inch thick, of Portland 
cement. 

Dampness of Cellar Walls. — Cellar walls must always 
be made impervious to dampness. As usually built, 
they are extremely porous, and moisture rises in them 
by contact with the adjoining ground and by capillary 
attraction. The best plan to prevent dampness of walls 
is to have a complete cut-off between the foundation 
walls and the ground, by an open area, carried com- 
pletely around the building. The area must be well 
drained and ventilated. This form of construction is, 
however, expensive, and a similar isolation may be 
accomplished by building double or hollow walls, the 
space between the inner and outer walls being well 
aired. The foundation walls should be placed upon a 
bed of concrete, and be covered on their outside with 
a layer of asphaltum to a point somewhat above the 
level of the ground. It is very important to provide, 
at this height in the wall, an isolating or damp-proof 
course, which may consist of a horizontal, thick layer 
of asphaltum, of slate, bedded in cement, of layers of 
tarred roofing paper, or else of hollow tiles. The sill 
and the floor joists must, of course, be kept above the 
damp-proof course. The surface water may be kept 
away from the outer walls by filling the space next to 
the wall, to a depth well below the foundation walls, 
with broken stones or gravel. Sometimes a tile-drain 
is placed below the footing course to carry off any 
accumulation of percolating storm water. This trench 
may be covered at the top with a stone slab to shed 
off surface water. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 15 

The so-called "practical" builder will probably sneer 
at some of these suggestions. I can assure those of 
my readers who care to build a healthful home, that 
the money spent for such preventive measures will 
form an excellent investment. The proper construc- 
tion of healthy foundation walls, and of a cellar which 
is dry and cheerful at all times, is the basis of sani- 
tation in cottage-building. This much accomplished, 
all remaining requirements are not so difficult to 
fulfill. 

Light and Air in Cellars. — Next to dryness, the most 
desirable features of a good cellar are, that it should 
be well lighted and perfectly ventilated. Good light in 
a cellar helps much toward keeping it in a proper con- 
dition. It is advisable to carry a ventilation flue down 
to the cellar and to have an opening into it near the 
cellar ceiling. It is not difficult to appreciate the im- 
portance and necessity of cellar ventilation, if we 
remember that floors necessarily have some crevices or 
shrinkage holes, through which the cellar air will rise 
and mingle with the atmosphere of the living and 
sleeping rooms. Above all other things, do not allow 
your cellar to be made a sort of gigantic poke-hole for 
rags, cast-off clothing, old shoes, tin cans, rotten vege- 
tables, garbage, swill, or other offensive matters. See 
that it is kept at all times free from rats and vermin. 
Do not tolerate any opening in the cellar floor for the 
removal of surplus water into foul water drains. Such 
opening, even if trapped, will be sure to act at times as 
an inlet for unwelcome sewer air. 

Cellars often become damp in summer time from 
condensation of moisture from the air. Contrary to 



1 6 SANITATION OF 

popular notion, it is best, during hot weather and when 
the outside air is muggy and damp, not to open the 
cellar windows during the day. The cellar is so much 
cooler than the outside moisture-laden air, that the 
watery vapor condenses on the walls and floors of the 
cellar, producing dampness and causing mildew and 
rust. In such weather the cellar windows should be 
opened only during the night. 

The cellar should contain besides the heating appara- 
tus the bins for the fuel used in heating and for the 
kitchen range. It is also the place for the main drain- 
age pipes, and for the main supply services for water 
and for gas, including the gas meter. A cool place 
with an even temperature should be partitioned off for 
a wine cellar. If the cellar is quite dry, parts of it may 
be utilized as a storage place, and it is best in that case 
to provide a raised wooden platform. 

Arrangement of Rooms. — Due attention should be 
given, in grouping the rooms of a house, to the question 
of aspect or outlook. For this reason it is a great mis- 
take to draw the plans of a house first, to select the 
site afterwards, and then to try and make the latter 
conform to the plans. Given the lot, the various rooms 
should be arranged as much as possible with regard to 
the outlook. Living rooms should front towards the 
south or southeast; the principal bedroom may have an 
outlook towards the east or northeast, thus enjoying the 
morning sun's rays. A dining-room may look towards 
the north, northeast, or northwest, while the domestic 
quarters will usually be located on the west or north- 
west side of the dwelling. Of course, these rules can- 
not always be strictly adhered to in the case of the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 7 

smaller cottages, and they are given merely as sugges- 
tions, to be followed where practical. 

A house should in general be so placed as to get the 
greatest amount of sunlight to the interior. All rooms 
should be airy, sunny, and well lighted. Nothing is so 
detrimental to domestic cleanliness as darkness. Dark 
staircases and closets are an abomination. Every room 
of the house should have large, good-sized, outside win- 
dows, reaching well up to the ceiling. Roofs of wide 
porches or piazzas are delightful sheltering places against 
the scorching heat of an August sun, but they rob 
the lower rooms of much necessary sunlight. Shut- 
ters and blinds are desirable things to keep out too 
much sun, bat they must not be kept closed all day as 
is — alas ! — the custom with so many people. House- 
holders may promote the interests of their pocketbooks 
by preventing the early fading of curtains and carpets, 
but their ultimate object is generally lamentably defeated 
by an increase in doctors' bills, caused by the continued 
ill-health of members of the household who are spending 
the greater part of the day at home. 

The excellent rule of Bacon that " Houses are built 
to live in, not to look npoji'' should constantly be kept 
in mind in arranging the house interior. Select the 
largest and most cheerful rooms for the bedrooms. 
Avoid placing a sleeping room on the ground floor of a 
dwelling, and never use the basement for such purpose. 
Next in importance comes the living room, in some 
houses the study or library, which should face the 
south, southeast, or southwest. If one can afford to 
have, in addition to the sitting room, a reception room 
or parlor, this should be the smaller of the two. The 



1 8 SANITATION OF 

dining-room should be located either next to the kitchen 
or preferably should communicate with it (where the 
size of the dwelling admits this) through a butler's 
pantry. The kitchen should be large, roomy, light, and 
airy, for this facilitates domestic operations. Wherever 
possible, windows should be arranged on opposite sides 
of a kitchen in order to have cross-ventilation in sum- 
mer time. If the size of the building lot and the sum 
available for building admit of it, a large hall should 
form an integral part of the house. It should have a 
cheerful outlook upon the landscape, and be fitted up 
in a cosy manner so as to permit its use as a reception 
or sitting room. 

Low ceilings — though considered fashionable by 
many — are not conducive to health. No room ought 
to be less than nine feet in height. Windows ought to 
reach nearly to the ceiling, and should open at top and 
bottom. Any stagnation of air at the ceiling may then 
be avoided by lowering the top sash. For bedrooms 
the cubic space for each person should not be less than 
one thousand cubic feet. 

Some Details of Sanitary Construction, Materials, Wall Sur- 
faces, Floors, Windows, and Furnishings. — I do not intend 
giving rules which may be found in treatises on building 
construction, but will briefly mention a few special 
points, worthy of careful attention in building a salubri- 
ous dwelling. 

Moderate-priced cottages are naturally constructed 
largely or wholly of wood, with the exception of the 
cellar walls, which are generally of stone. Healthful 
dwellings may be constructed either of stone or brick- 
work, or else of framework, but all materials must be 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 9 

carefuLy selected and proper use must be made of them 
in the construction. Frame dwellings, when situated 
where they are much exposed to driving rains, are apt 
to be damp and affected by mildew, and their woodwork 
may rot sooner. 

In the class of dwellings under consideration, the 
inside of the walls is usually plastered ; in like manner 
partition walls are constructed of wood and then lathed 
and plastered. A sanitary wall-surface should be smooth 
and non-absorbent, so that it could be washed clean 
with soap and brush, such as, for instance, a tiled wall 
or one made of glazed bricks. Partition walls should 
be impervious in order to prevent air currents passing 
from one room to another, or from one floor to the 
next above. When built impervious, they also check 
the rapidity of a fire. 

Outside walls need not be absolutely impervious, and 
the porosity of outer walls, as usually built, helps to 
some extent in changing the air of a room, as shown by 
Professor Pettenkofer. It seems quite doubtful, there- 
fore, whether there is wisdom in the practice of cover- 
ing the outside walls of buildings with some absolutely 
impervious coating. 

Plaster is necessarily absorbent, consequently many 
of the so-called organic vapors or impurities of the air 
gradually penetrate the wall. Hence arises the peculiar 
musty smell often found in rooms of old buildings. 
Wall papers are not much better in this respect, but 
painted or whitewashed walls are probably the best. 
Regarding wall papers, attention should be called to 
the danger from arsenical poisoning, existing not only 
in the green colors, but also in a large variety of other 



20 SANITATION OF 

tints. The paste used to fasten wall papers often 
decomposes, and gives rise to annoying odors. 

The usual flooring in cottages and suburban dwellings 
consists of a board floor, laid with more or less wide 
floor boards. As a rule, it is carelessly jointed, and 
this is very objectionable because it favors the accumu- 
lation of dust and dirt under the floor. It is customary, 
though hardly wise, to cover all floors, even those in 
bedrooms, with carpets cut to the shape of the room 
and tacked down to' the boards. But carpets used in 
such a manner are neither artistic nor healthful. They 
are harboring places for vermin, and accumulate a large 
amount of dirt and filth. They are especially objection- 
able on this account in bedrooms, as well as in dining- 
rooms, and too much praise cannot be given to the 
rapidly spreading fashion of using loose rugs in place 
of carpets. 

Hard-wood floors should be laid with close joints, 
preferably tongued and grooved ; the strips should be 
narrow, and well-dried hard wood only should be selected. 
In place of carpets, small and large rugs should be 
used, and the uncovered outer edges of the floor should 
be painted, varnished or waxed and polished. If cost is 
no objection, a wood carpet or parquet flooring may be 
used. In cleaning the floors of a house, the use of 
much water should be avoided, for some of it necessarily 
soaks through the cracks in the floor boards, and the 
moisture which remains, together with the dust and dirt 
which settle into these places, cannot help being detri- 
mental to health. 

The dark days of the Middle Ages — dark in more 
senses than one — are fortunately past, when a tax was 



COUNTRY HOUSES 21 

considered necessary upon the number of windows which 
a house had. Yet one sees even nowadays houses 
where builders seem to have been afraid of such a 
"window-tax." All rooms of a house should be well 
lighted by large windows opening at the top and the 
bottom, or by so-called casement windows, the latter 
used almost exclusively on the continent of Europe. 
There should be a"certain minimum amount of window 
surface in proportion to tiie cubic space, or better the 
floor space, of a room. A common rule is to have 
one square foot of window surface to every one hundred 
cubic feet contents of a room. The proportion between 
window surface and floor space in houses is put by vari- 
ous sanitary authorities at from one-seventh to one- 
twelfth. 

Regarding sanitary furnishings, I quote from Dr. B. 
W. Richardson : 

'^ In furnishing, woolen and fluffy materials are bad, heavy 
curtains to beds and windows are bad, carpets which 
cover the whole of a room are bad. In a word, all 
materials that catch dust, keep dust, hide dust, and, on 
bei?tg shaken, yield clouds of dust, are bad'' 

In summer time especially, a house should be free 
from heavy hangings and from upholstered furniture 
and decoration which accumulate dust and dirt. 

Window and Door Screens. — The windows and doors 
of country houses should be screened during, at least, a 
part of the year, in order to prevent the entrance of flies, 
mosquitoes, and other insects. 

In the better class of houses the screens are fitted 
permanently to the windows and consist of wooden or 
steel frames, holding a screen of very fine mesh. The 



22 SANITATION OF 

material for the wire screens is either black or painted 
iron, or, better, brass or copper. The screens may be 
fitted to the windows either inside or outside of the sashes. 
An advantage of the outside position of the screen is that 
the window sashes may be raised or lowered without 
handling the screens, but the drawback is that they are 
more liable to corrosion, being always exposed to the rain 
and the weather. 

For less expensive houses adjustable and removable 
screens may be used, and in the case of cheap dwellings 
the windows may be screened with cotton gauze or netting. 

Screens are particularly desirable for the bedrooms of 
the house and also for the dining-room, the kitchen, and 
the pantry. They serve to increase our comfort during 
sleeping hours, because they spare us the annoyance of 
being bitten or waked in the early morning hours. In the 
dining-room they help to protect the food on the table, 
and in the kitchen and pantry they have for a long time 
been considered almost indispensable, because without 
them it would be impossible to prevent the fly nuisance 
and the aggregation of hundreds of these pests near or 
on the materials from which our food is prepared. 

The question of convenience and comfort is, however, 
not the only one with which we are dealing when we 
attempt to screen our windows and doors. Experiments 
and investigations made in recent years have established 
the fact that both the flies and the mosquitoes are carriers 
of disease, and with this in view we must consider the 
screening of our houses as a sanitary measure of infinite 
importance, as will be explained further on. 

As regards flies, it is not so very long ago that the 
modern view has taken the place of notions that flies are 



COUNTRY HOUSES 23 

harmless or even of some service to mankind. Even in 
the 1901 edition of Johnson's (Appleton's) Universal 
Cyclopedia an article on "Flies" says: '' Many species 
of flies are to be regarded as beneficial, as they act as 
scavengers and remove much noisome iualter.^^ 

Flies and Mosquitoes as Carriers of Disease. — That 
the bite or sting of mosquitoes, flies, and other winged 
insects may produce illness, blood poisoning, or even 
death has been known for a long time. In recent years, 
however, the very important discovery has been made that 
these insects play an important role in the dissemination 
of bacteria and in the transmission of pathogenic germs. 

Flies. — The common house fly cannot bite, and the 
transmission of disease takes place in a different manner. 
The flies breed principally in stable and privy manure. 
They enter our houses and are attracted by the food in 
the kitchen and in the dining-room. Excrementitious 
matter and bacilli attach themselves to the bodies and to 
the feet of the flies and are in this way transferred to our 
solid food or to the milk; that a large amount of typhoid 
fever is thus transmitted has been demonstrated almost 
beyond the shadow of a doubt, and it was particularly 
the experience in the United States military camps during 
the Spanish-American War of 1898, which clearly pointed 
to the flies as the spreaders of the typhoid fever. A 
commission of army surgeons [investigated the matter 
thoroughly and in a voluminous report presented detailed 
evidence to show that the flies were the most active agents 
in the spread of this disease. From their report I quote 
as follows: 

"The latrines contained faecal matter specifically 
infected with the typhoid bacillus. Flies alternately 



24 SANITATION OF 

visited and fed upon this and upon the food in the mess 
tents. More than once it happened, where lime had been 
scattered as a disinfectant in the pits, that the flies with 
their feet covered with lime were found afterwards walking 
over the food. The typhoid fever was much less frequent 
among members of messes who had their tents screened 
than it was among those who took no precaution." 

Many years previous to this war. Dr. Joseph Leidy 
attributed the spread of gangrene in the Washington 
hospitals during the Civil War to the flies. Experiments 
made by EngHsh physicians in India seem to point to the 
fact that other diseases than typhoid fever, for instance, 
Asiatic cholera and the bubonic plague, may be trans- 
mitted by flies. In Africa the tsetse fly is the cause of the 
transmission of the much-dreaded cattle disease. Flies 
are also said to transmit the eye-disease known as ''pink 
eye," and in Egypt the Egyptian eye disease. 

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes are blood-sucking insects 
which play a very important role in the transmission of 
diseases, the chief of which are malaria and yellow fever. 
In both cases the mosquitoes act as intermediary host for 
the disease; in other words, it is necessary that the mos- 
quitoes should first bite or sting a patient sick with yellow 
fever or with malaria. In doing this they suck up the germ 
of the disease, which develops in their blood, and when a 
certain time has elapsed the sting or bite of such an 
infected mosquito will cause the disease in a healthy 
human being. 

It is an interesting fact that not all mosquitoes transmit 
disease, and that different diseases, such as malaria and 
yellow fever, are transmitted by the bite of different kinds 
of mosquitoes. Malaria, which up to a few years ago 



COUNTRY HOUSES 25 

was attributed chiefly to the noxious exhalations of 
swampy regions, is transmitted by the bite .of a single 
species, namely, the anopheles, and yellow fever is so far 
known to be transmitted only by a species, the stegomyia 
fasciata, which infests largely the Southern Atlantic 
coast, a part of the Southern States and the Islands of 
Cuba and Jamaica, as well as some of the smaller 
Antilles. 

The transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was made 
the study of an Italian commission who experimented in 
the Roman Campagna, and in a similar way yellow fever 
was discovered to be due to the stegomyia fasciata mosquito 
by the United States Army Commission, who made 
important experiments and discoveries in Havana, Cuba, 
the results of which led to the almost entire extermination 
of the once so dreaded scourge. 

The United States Army Board summarized the results 
of its experiments and observations regarding the trans- 
mission of yellow fever by mosquitoes as follows: — 

First: "All attempts to bring about infection through 
contact of beddings, clothing and dejecta of yellow 
fever patients failed. The yellow fever is transmitted 
only by a mosquito of the species stegomyia. 

Second: Yellow fever patients can be the source from 
which other cases originate only when they have been 
bitten by the proper mosquito. All cases and suspected 
cases should therefore be kept behind safe mosquito 
screens and netting. 

Third: A yellow fever patient is dangerous only when 
bitten by a mosquito during the first three or four days. 

Fourth: Hospitals for treatment of suspected cases of 
yellow fever should be located on high and well-drained 



26 SANITATION OF 

grounds, away from creeks, pools, or standing water, 
free from mosquitoes and not surrounded by grass or 
shrubbery. All entrances and exits to hospitals should 
be provided with close mesh wire screen spring doors, 
and similar screens fixed immovably over every window, 
or any other opening communicating with the outer air. 

Fifth : Standing water should not be permitted in barrels 
or vessels of any kind ; broken crockery, tin cans, or other 
possible retainers of rain water should be searched for 
and removed. 

Sixth: All surface pools should be promptly drained 
and filled in with gravel or covered with petroleum. Apply 
kerosene also to the standing water in ditches, pools, and 
rain water gutters. The margins of ponds should be 
deepened to enable fish to reach the mosquito larvae. 

Seventh: Water should not stand uncovered in houses; 
rain water in cisterns or barrels should be covered with 
petroleum if not used for drinking; if so used all vents and 
openings should be tightly screened or covered. Make a 
periodical search for the wigglers of mosquitoes, and in 
this way reduce their number and the chances of infection." 

The ordinary layman has as yet very little understanding 
for the sanitary importance of fencing out flies and mos- 
quitoes from the interior of our houses, and physicians 
are just beginning to appreciate the fact that to prevent 
the further spread of malaria, typhoid, or yellow fever 
it is absolutely necessary that the patient should be 
screened so that the insects may not reach him. 

Practical Suggestions for the Extermination and Control of 
Mosquitoes and Flies. — Flies. — Besides the window and 
door screens already mentioned and the use of sticky fly 
paper, fly traps or similar devices for catching and destroy- 



I 



COUNTRY HOUSES 27 

ing flics in the house, it is necessary that more radical 
efforts should be made to destroy the flies where they breed. 
First of all the manure from horse stables should be treated 
with lime or kerosene and kept in securely closed pits 
until it is removed, and this removal should be accom- 
plished at frequent intervals. Inside of houses the mainte- 
nance of absolute cleanliness will be of much assistance 
in dealing with this evil. The use of kerosene or other 
oil has been suggested for privy vaults and cesspools. Dirt 
accumulations of any kind around a house should be 
abolished, and in this way much can be done to mitigate 
the evil. In cities the reduction in the number of horse 
stables and the increasing use of automobiles, bicycles, 
motor cycles, and electric trolleys help very materially in 
the fight against these pests. 

Mosquitoes. — The use of window and door screens 
and of mosquito nettings over the beds is advisable, 
likewise the hunt for mosquitoes with cups filled with 
kerosene and the burning of pyrethrum powders in rooms. 
Of much more importance is the aboHtion of the breeding 
places of mosquitoes and the destruction of the larvae or 
wigglers. All cisterns, rain water barrels, water tanks, 
and cesspools about the house should be well screened. 
All stagnant pools of water should, wherever possible, 
be drained or filled in, or else these places may be treated 
with kerosene oil. In ponds and pools of clear water the 
introduction of small fish, which eat up the larvae, is 
recommended. 

The great difficulty in the warfare against the mos- 
quitoes lies in the fact that combined action is necessary 
in deahng with them. In many parts of this country, 
for instance on Long Island, on the Jersey Coast, and in 



28 SANITATION OF 

other places, regular mosquito brigades have been organ- 
ized by Associations or by the State Entomologists and 
have accomplished excellent results, particularly where 
large swampy areas have been ditched and drained. It 
is a fact worth noticing that all remedies and measures of 
prevention commend themselves to us as general sanitary 
measures of importance, such as, for instance, the mainte- 
nance of gutters in a clean condition and the prevention of 
accumulations of stagnant water in them, the deepening 
of ponds along their edges, and the improvement of the 
banks of running streams. 

The American Mosquito Extermination Society have 
done a great deal of useful work in this direction, and in 
a "Mosquito Brief" recently issued they state: "Mos- 
quitoes are a needless and dangerous pest; their propaga- 
tion can be largely prevented by such methods as drainage 
or fiUing of wet areas, removal, emptying, or screening 
of water receptacles, and spraying standing water with oil 
where other remedies are impracticable. Attention should 
be paid to cisterns, house vases, cesspools, road basins, 
sewers, watering troughs, roof gutters, old tin cans, holes 
in trees, swamps, and puddles. As malarial mosquitoes 
may be bred in clear springs, the edges of such places 
should be kept clean and they should be stocked with 
small fish. The breeding and protection of insectivorous 
birds, such as swallows and martins, should be encouraged. 
Thorough screening of houses and cisterns is necessary 
to prevent the spread of malaria or yellow fever. The 
continued breeding of any kind of mosquitoes with the 
attendant menace to public health and to the life and 
comfort of man and beast is therefore the result of 
ignorance or neglect." 



COUNTRY HOUSES 29 

Much more might be said about health and comfort 
in the house, for no attempt has been made to cover all 
points. The few suggestions on the principal topics are 
made merely to emphasize the importance of this sub- 
ject, but we must now turn our attention to matters of 
more immediate sanitary importance, which are com- 
prised in what may be termed ''domestic engineering," 
namely the lighting, ventilation, heating, water supply, 
plumbing, and sewage disposal of country houses. 

Lighting. — Suburban and country houses are arti- 
ficially lighted, either by individual, and usually portable, 
sources of light, such as oil lamps and candles, or else 
by some central system of lighting, having one common 
source for all rooms, halls, and other parts of the house, 
such as a gasoline or air-gas machine, an acetylene gen- 
erator, or an electric lighting plant. 

It is always advisable, while a building is in course of 
construction, to put in the gas pipes and the conduits 
for the electric wiring, even when no lighting plant is 
contemplated for immediate instalment. The under- 
ground gas mains of a nearby town may, at some time, 
be extended to the building lot, and an electric light and 
power company may in the future run its feeders near 
the house. In both cases, it will be an advantage to 
have the house already piped for gas and wired for elec- 
tricity, for otherwise the process of tearing up floors 
and cutting walls and partitions to put in the gas pipes 
and the electric wiring conduits will entail not only a 
great deal of discomfort but likewise a heavy expense. 

When the gas piping is put in, it should be tested, 
before the plastering is done, by a force pump and mer- 
cury gauge to make sure that it is perfectly tight and 



30 SANITATION OF 

that there are no concealed leaks. Equally desirable 
and necessary is the examination and testing of the 
electric installation by the underwriters, particularly 
when the wiring for the lights is put in. In the case of 
gas piping, large sizes of pipes should be chosen so that 
they would be suitable and ample in case the owner 
decides to put in a gas machine, for gasoline air gas 
requires piping somewhat larger in size than does ordi- 
nary city gas. 

The lighting of rooms by means of kerosene oil lamps 
is a method comparable, as regards convenience, to the 
individual heating of rooms by a number of separate stoves 
or fireplaces. Compared with gas lighting fixtures, oil 
lamps have the advantage of portability, but this very 
advantage renders them more dangerous in use, for oil 
lamps are liable to be upset, causing fires and damage to 
property. Oil lamps are also liable to explode and become 
a danger to life. They constitute a cheap and desirable 
light, particularly for reading and for sewing, for which 
occupations they are preferable to electric or gas lights. 
But they have some drawbacks, such as the bad odor 
often emitted, the heat given off by large oil lamps of 
the duplex burner type, the smoking of lamps, and the 
soiling of the hands in carrying them about. Then 
again, if we consider the labor and expense involved in 
cleaning and filling the lamps, in trimming and renewal 
of the wicks, and the expense incident to the breaking 
of lamp chimneys, gas light is about as cheap, particu- 
larly so in the larger towns where the price of gas has 
been reduced. Explosions of gas are comparatively 
rare, and in most cases are due to criminal carelessness 
in searching for gas leaks with an open light, whereas 



COUNTRY HOUSES ^T 

lamp explosions cannot always, even where great care is 
exercised, be foreseen or prevented. 

The lighting of rooms with candles is almost entirely 
confined to emergency lighting, except possibly the 
lighting of the dining table by means of dainty wax or 
paraffine candles, held in graceful candlesticks or can- 
delabras. The soft and mellow light of candles lends 
itself particularly to the adornment of the festive table, 
and to the decoration of drawing-rooms generally, but 
it is neither a convenient nor a cheap method. 

In recent years some improved forms of individual 
acetylene lamps have been introduced, and a few types 
have even received the approval of fire underwriters. 
They give a brilliant white light and are inexpensive, 
both as to the first cost of the lamp, and cost of the 
carbide, but the body of the lamp must include a water 
reservoir, and this makes the lamp cumbersome and 
heavy. Some intelligence is also required in charging 
these lamps, and they cannot be intrusted to the care 
of the average domestic. 

If a central system of lighting is wanted, owners of 
country houses may choose between 

1. A gasoline gas machine. 

2. An acetylene gas machine, or 
3.' An electric lighting plant. 

Gasoline gas machines consist essentially of a tank 
or reservoir to hold the fluid, a blower to force the air 
over the gasoline and to generate pressure, a mechanism 
to run the blower, a mixing chamber and the required 
pipe connections. Gasoline is a fluid which has a pun- 
gent odor and the property of evaporating under ordi- 



32 SANITATION OF 

nary temperatures. When it evaporates, it mixes with 
the air and becomes inflammable, and in certain pro- 
portions of air and vapor explosive. Hence it is some- 
what dangerous to use, and great care is required where 
such machines are installed, particularly in the re- 
charging or refilling of the generator. No fire, open 
light, or even a burning cigar should be used near the 
gasoline tank. Gasoline must never be stored inside of 
a building, and the rules of fire underwriters require 
that it be kept in an underground vault, or brick or 
stone building, placed at a distance of 50 feet from the 
dwelling-house. 

The carburetted air-gas is a simple mechanical mix- 
ture of common air and of the vapor of gasoline ; it is 
heavier than common gas, and to obtain a more uniform 
quality of the gas it is passed first through a mixer or 
equalizer before it is delivered into the house gas pipes. 
This mixer is also intended to prevent the smoking of 
the gas flames. 

The blower or air pump may be located in the cellar 
of the building. The blower is operated in various 
ways, either by a weight suspended from a drum, and 
wound up in a manner similar to a clock, or else a water 
wheel is used to run the air pump, but this type of 
machine can only be installed where the water supply is 
plentiful, and the water running to waste should, if 
possible, be utilized. At any rate, it is not advisable to 
discharge it into the house drain where the latter dis- 
charges into a sewage disposal field. 

The outside generator and the air pump or blower are 
connected by means of tightly jointed iron pipes. The 
air pipe as well as the pipe carrying the carburetted gas 



COUNTRY HOUSES 33 

must be pitched towards the generator in order to 
return to it all condensation. The blower draws its 
free air from outdoors, and not from the cellar. 

The air gas can be used not only for lighting, but 
also for heating and for cooking. For light, it is best 
to burn the gas in incandescent mantle burners, which 
should be specially adjusted for this particular kind of 
service. Ordinary gas burners are not suitable, and 
even the special air-gas burners give, as a rule, a poor 
and unsteady light, and are very apt to smoke up the 
ceilings. 

In recent years, acetylene gas machines have been 
introduced and used in some cases instead of carburetted 
air-gas machines. As is well known, acetylene gas is 
generated by the action of water on calcium carbide. 
The gas obtained is called acetylene gas, and it gives a 
very brilliant, white, and steady light. It is cheaper 
than electric light, requires but little attention and, if 
used with care, is perfectly safe. 

There are numerous acetylene generators in the 
market, and house owners are advised to select only 
from those apparatus which have been approved by the 
underwriters.* Once the type has been decided upon, 
purchase a generator ample in size and capacity for the 
duty or service required. Of the various types of ma- 
chines, those in which carbide is fed into the water are 
considered to be the best. 

Some underwriters require the machine to be placed 
in a frostproof outbuilding, at some distance from the 

* The National Board of Fire Underwiters, of Chicago, issue a list 
of approved acetylene generators, which list is frequently revised and 
brought up to date, and which is sent free on application. 



34 SANITATION OF 

house ; others permit locating the generator in the 
basement or cellar. In this case it should be placed 
where there is good light for the inspection of the 
machine, and where it can be conveniently recharged. 

In connecting the generator with the main gas riser 
of the house, the pipe should be given a good grade back 
to the machine. Before connections are made, make 
sure by a test that the gas piping is absolutely air- 
tight, because acetylene gas mixed with air is highly 
inflammable, and even the slightest leak may become a 
source of danger. 

It was formerly thought that since acetylene light 
was burned in very small burners, viz. one-half cubic 
foot burners, the piping could be made a great deal 
smaller than required for city gas. But this idea has 
proved a fallacy, and acetylene gas specialists now 
advise the use of larger pipes ; for instance, twenty 
burners require a pipe not smaller than three-quarters 
of an inch. 

Electric lighting of country houses from individual 
plants has many advantages. The light does not vitiate 
the air, nor does it give off much heat. The incandes- 
cent bulbs lend themselves more readily than gas jets to 
the decorative lighting effects sought. Electric lighting 
is also somewhat safer than gas or oil lamps as regards 
danger from fire, but it is so only if all rules and pre- 
cautions advised by the underwriters are strictly followed 
and observed. The wires should never be run in wooden 
moldings, but must be carried in iron or brass *' armored " 
conduits. The entire house installation must be tested 
by an expert electrician to guard against defects. 

The plant required for the lighting by electricity may 



COUNTRY HOUSES 35 

be located in the barn or in the water pumping station, 
if there is one, and comprises an engine or power motor 
and a dynamo or generator. Water power may be 
utilized in turbine wheels to drive the dynamo ; some- 
times a steam engine is used, and the exhaust steam 
from the engine is then utilized during the cold weather 
to heat the house ; in summer time it may be used to 
heat the water for the household. Gasoline and oil 
engines are employed more than other power motors ; 
they have the great advantage of being capable of being 
used for other purposes during the daytime, for instance, 
for sawing wood logs, or for running the pump of the 
water supply plant. 

The connection between the engine and the dynamo 
is either a direct one or else a belted connection. In 
some cases storage batteries are installed in connection 
with the dynamo, insuring a steadier supply of electric 
current.* 

Ventilation. — Ventilation, or the change of air, must 
go on in dwellings at all seasons of the year. Its aim is 
to remove the vitiated air in a dwelling and to introduce 
a sufficient amount of pure air, moderately heated in 
winter time and supplied with a proper amount of 
moisture. This should be thoroughly and uniformly 
diffused in the house interior, in gentle currents, with- 
out causing any drafts. Drafts are dangerous to health, 
because they rob the human body too suddenly of a part 
of its heat. In summer time, ventilation is well and 
easily accomplished by opening doors or windows, and 
by an occasional "air flushing," i.e. by creating cross 

* See Gerhardy The American Practice of Gas Piping and Gas Light' 
ing in Buildings, 1908. 



36 SANITATION OF 

currents through rooms. Fireplaces should not be cov- 
ered up in summer by boards. In winter time, ventila- 
tion should be combined with the heating of the house, 
and further suggestions about it will be given when 
speaking of the various modes of warming cottages. 

In the spring and autumn months we often content 
ourselves with a small wood or coal fire in the open fire- 
place, and in such a case the easiest way to provide for 
incoming fresh air is by admitting the same through the 
windows, and directing the cold current to rise up to the 
ceiling. This may be done by lowering the upper sash 
and raising the lower one slightly, but not enough to 
leave openings at top or bottom. A better way is, of 
course, to have a ventilating open fireplace, such as the 
*'fire-on-the-hearth" stove, or other similar apparatus. 

The so-called spontaneous or accidental ventilation 
which goes on continually by reason of air penetrating 
walls cannot, practically, establish a sufficient change of 
air. Its effect is very much reduced by papering, paint- 
ing or plastering of the wall surfaces, and by treating the 
outside of the building walls with some water-proof pro- 
cess, as is frequently done to obtain a protection against 
driving rainstorms. 

Methods of Warming. — The question of how to warm 
a country house will depend upon the climate and 
locality of the dwelling, and to a great extent also upon 
its exposure.- Three methods of warming the air of 
halls and rooms are available, namely, warming by open 
fireplaces, by stoves, and by hot-air furnaces. The 
methods of warming by direct or indirect radiation with 
steam or hot water apparatus, however good they are, 
cannot be considered here, as they require a larger out- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 37 

lay of money than is usually available for the buildings 
under consideration. 

Open Fireplaces. — Ordinary fireplaces warm princi- 
pally by radiation, the heat from the fire being imparted 
to surrounding objects or persons without warming the' 
surrounding air to any great extent. The degree of 
heat varies inversely with the square of the distance 
from the grate fire. Thus it happens in very cold 
weather that with a fireplace as the only means of heat- 
ing a room of an exposed dwelling, a person near the 
fire may be almost roasted, while at the opposite extreme 
end of the room the temperature may be almost down 
to the freezing point. A further disadvantage is the 
fact that an open fire warms only the part of the body 
which faces the fire. The greatest objection to the 
ordinary open grate fire lies in the fact that 85% and 
more of the fuel is wasted, the heat from it going 
straight up the chimney flue. A fireplace generally 
causes extremely annoying drafts from window cracks, 
or from spaces between the door and the trim or saddle, 
especially in very cold weather. On the other hand, if 
the cracks of windows are carefully closed and stopped 
up the chimney is apt to smoke, owing to a deficient air 
supply. While, therefore, an open fireplace may be 
adequate in warm climates, it is entirely inadequate to 
warm, per se, cottages in our eastern, northern, and 
northwestern states. 

To say that a very large waste of fuel occurs in 
warming by fireplaces is not strictly correct. The heat 
going up the flue is not actually quite wasted, for it 
forms a good aid to the ventilation of rooms. We shall 
see later that, as an accessory of other heating methods, 



38 SANITATION OF 

the fireplace is eminently serviceable, and much to be 
recommended. 

Ventilating Fireplaces. — Better than ordinary fireplaces 
are the improved so-called ventilating fireplaces, which 
are provided vi^ith a large air-chamber, and a sufficient 
air supply from outdoors. There are several excellent 
devices of this kind in the market, and these are, of 
course, much more economical as far as the burning 
of fuel is concerned, about 35% of the heat being 
utilized, while a good ventilation of the rooms is also 
accomplished. 

Stoves. — In this country, stoves of cast iron and of 
wrought iron are the usual and most economical means 
of heating cottages and small suburban dwellings. As 
ordinarily fitted up and arranged, stoves constitute the 
worst possible devices for warming the air of our rooms. 
Heating should always be combined with ventilation, 
that is, there should be a continuous removal of the 
fouled air and introduction of plenty of pure air arranged 
so as not to cause inconvenient or unhealthy drafts. A 
room warmed by an air-tight stove soon contains air 
which has become entirely unfit to breathe, because a 
stove removes practically none of the vitiated air, and 
there is usually an entire absence of any provision for 
introducing fresh air. It is true that less fuel is con- 
sumed, and stove heating is consequently economical, at 
least apparently so, but in reality it causes loss of 
strength and vigor, general debility and extreme sensi- 
tiveness, and hence increased doctors' bills. 

If a dwelling must be heated by stoves, the following 
precautions should be observed. Select a good-sized, 
well-built stove, with tight joints, one which is lined on 



COUNTRY HOUSES 39 

the inside with fire-brick to prevent the iron from get- 
ting red hot and to retain, as much as possible, the heat. 
A supply of fresh, pure air from the outside should be 
provided and carried to a jacket surrounding the stove ; 
in this way the pure outdoor air is warmed by contact 
with the stove, and then circulated in the room. The 
smoke-pipe of the stove should be large, and should not 
have a damper to shut off the draft. A valve may be 
placed on the fresh-air inlet pipe to regulate the amount 
of fresh air introduced at will. For the removal of the 
foul air, outlets leading into the chimney flue must 
be arranged near the ceiling of the room, care being 
taken to prevent down-drafts or the entrance of smoke, 
by arranging a self-closing flap valve at the outlet. It 
is much preferable, however, to have a separate exhaust 
or ventilating flue built in the chimney alongside of the 
smoke flue and warmed by the latter ; this flue should 
have outlets into every room through which the chimney 
passes. The stove should have ample capacity to heat 
the room even in very cold weather without driving the 
fire to a red heat. It is a good plan to supply a mod- 
erate amount of moisture to the air of the room by plac- 
ing a water kettle or evaporating pan on the stove. 

Warm Air Furnaces. — Heating suburban and country 
dwellings by means of warm air furnaces has many 
advantages over stove heating. Furnace heating is, 
strictly speaking, stove heating, with this difference, 
however, that there is provided only 07ie large stove, 
centrally located in the basement or cellar, from which 
air pipes of sufficient size carry the warm air into the 
rooms as desired. There is, consequently, much less 
labor in carrying coal and making fires, less trouble in 



40 SANITATION OF 

keeping up the fire, and less dirt and dust from remov- 
ing ashes. 

Furnace heating is disHked by many, and some have 
even condemned it as being detrimental to health. 
While it is undoubtedly true that improperly arranged 
furnace apparatus may be the cause of ill-feeling, head- 
ache, or sickness, it is unreasonable to apply these objec- 
tions to the system as such, for it is well known that 
heating by furnaces can be made perfectly healthful and 
agreeable. It is impossible to successfully heat a room 
by furnace heat unless arrangements are made, by an 
open fireplace or other outlet into a chimney flue, for 
the withdrawal of the air which has been exhaled and 
which is fouled by respiration of the occupants of the 
room. It is impossible to introduce into a room, pure, 
warmed air, without removing a like amount of fouled 
air. Another mistake, frequently made, is to take the 
air supply to the furnace air-chamber directly from the 
cellar. Thus, cellar air, ground air, or air from leaky 
sewer pipes is often sent up in a heated condition into 
the living and sleeping rooms of the house. 

If warming by means of a furnace is decided upon, 
care should be taken to select from the innumerable 
patterns in the market a good furnace. The furnace 
should be of the best quality of material of its kind — 
either cast iron, wrought iron, or soapstone — and of a 
good size, for if the furnace is small, it will become over- 
heated in extremely cold weather. This is very objec- 
tionable, because it renders the air less fit for breathing, 
and is liable to cause cracks in the cast iron, and to 
loosen the joints in wrought-iron furnaces. The furnace 
must be well constructed, the fire pot must be lined 



COUNTRY HOUSES 4I 

with fire-brick to prevent the rapid burning out of the 
iron, the joints must be few in number and perfectly 
tight, and this must be made the subject of a special 
examination. 

Fresh Air Conduits. — The furnace should have either 
one or two large cold-air ducts, leading to the outside of 
the house, and located on opposite sides of the house, if 
there are two ducts. These air ducts should take their 
fresh air supply preferably from a point five or more 
feet above the surface of the ground. A slide-valve or 
damper must be arranged in the cold-air box, to regu- 
late the amount of the in-coming air, and where there is 
danger from impurities in the air the air supply should 
be filtered through a loose cotton filter. At the mouth of 
the air box a wire netting should be placed to prevent the 
entrance of rats or other animals. The air box should be 
constructed of well-dried, w^ooden plank, with closely 
fitted joints. Better, although more expensive, is a gal- 
vanized sheet-iron air duct with locked joints. It is 
advisable to carry the cold-air box along the ceiling of 
the cellar, where it is in sight, and not below the 
ground, where it may and often does become filled with 
ground water or pools of sewage from broken cellar 
drains. The size of the fresh-air inlet should be ap- 
proximately equal in area to the aggregate sum of the 
areas of all hot-air flues which lead from the air chamber 
of the furnace to the room.s. The fresh air should be 
kept tolerably moist by arranging in the air chamber of 
the furnace an evaporating pan kept constantly full of 
water. 

Flues and Registers. — The furnace must be located as 
centrally as possible, so as to make the horizontal hot- 



42 SANITATION OF 

air flues short, for the velocity of the air current is 
reduced by friction in long tubes, especially when these 
flues are small. The vertical hot-air flues should, prefer- 
ably, be kept on the inside walls, and must be as direct as 
possible, and of ample capacity. The inlets or registers 
for admitting warm air into the room should not be placed 
in the floor. It is unhealthy to stand over them; more- 
over, floor registers form receptacles of dirt and dust, are 
unsightly in the floor, and combustible articles care- 
lessly dropped into them may cause a fire. The inlets 
should be placed in a side wall, preferably six or seven 
feet above the floor. To avoid the danger of charring 
the woodwork, no hot-air flues should come in direct 
contact with floor joists, boards, or partitions ; all wood- 
work should be securely protected by some non-conduct- 
ing material. The smoke pipe should be large and be 
connected with a smooth flue of proper size, so as to 
insure a good, steady draft, which will remove all gases 
of combustion. There should be no damper on the 
smoke pipe, and the fire should be regulated only by 
more or less admission of air under the fire grate. 
Overheating of the furnace must be avoided, for this 
unduly dries the air, scorches the organic matter in 
the air which comes into contact with the fire, and thus 
causes a peculiar, disagreeable smell. 

Ventilation by Means of Open Fireplaces. — An open fire- 
place in the hall and in the principal living and sleeping 
rooms constitutes, in connection with furnace heating, 
the most comfortable and pleasant arrangement for 
withdrawing the fouled air from the rooms. Where 
pure warmed air is introduced by heating registers, the 
radiant heat from a fireplace is particularly invigorating 



COUNTRY HOUSES 43 

and comforting. The enjoyment of a cosy home is 
increased when its occupants can gather around a cheer- 
ful, glowing, open fire on the hearth to exchange pleas- 
ant thoughts or to dream away twilight hours in looking 
at the flickering light. 

When open fireplaces are not provided for ventilation, 
outlets must be arranged for leading into ventilating 
flues, built parallel to the smoke flues of the chimneys. 
Chimney flues should preferably not be built against 
outside walls, for if placed in such a position they 
are apt not to draw well, unless a special air space is 
arranged at the outside of the flue to prevent its too 
rapid cooling. Ventilating flues must be built without 
sharp angles ; they should be smooth on the inside and 
preferably round in section. Where they remove the 
air from a number of rooms, their cross-section must be 
proportionately increased. Bedrooms should never be 
heated by base burner stoves, but should have a fire- 
place acting at all times as an efficient foul-air flue. It 
is advisable to heat the principal halls moderately, in 
order to avoid cold drafts throughout the dwelling. 
The bathrooms and kitchens should be ventilated with 
special care. 

Water Supply. — The following hints on water supply 
refer chiefly to the smaller suburban cottages and 
country dwellings. In the second part of the book the 
water supply of country buildings and estates is taken 
up at greater length, and the arrangements necessary to 
obtain a perfect supply system are described more in 
detail. 

In the case of isolated country houses it is rare to 
find available a public water supply delivering the water 



44 SANITATION OF 

under a suitable pressure. As a rule, each owner is 
compelled to provide his own supply, and the most com- 
mon sources of water are either a spring, a well, or a 
rain water cistern. 

Wells. — It is a common sight in the country to find a 
well located close to or adjoining a leaching cesspool or 
a privy. Usually these wells are shallow, being dug or 
sunk to a very limited depth, and frequently the liquid 
sewage from cesspools soaks through the porous subsoil 
down to the subterranean water stratum which is tapped 
by the well. The danger to health from drinking im- 
pure and polluted water is now universally acknowledged. 
Polluted well water is rendered more dangerous by the 
fact that it often has a bright, sparkhng and clear ap- 
pearance, and that in summer time it has a low tem- 
perature, making it particularly agreeable as a beverage. 
Only a chemical, microscopic and biological analysis can 
reveal its unwholesome condition. It is extremely diffi- 
cult to fix a limit of minimum distance between a well and 
a cesspool or privy, as so many different factors have to 
be taken into consideration. In rocky ground, especially, 
there may exist hidden fissures carrying the contents of 
cesspools to a much greater distance than would gener- 
ally be expected. 

If there is no leaching cesspool, no privy, and no 
other cause of soil contamination in the neighborhood, a 
well may be safely used. But if cesspools must be kept 
on the ground surrounding the cottage, or if they exist 
in the neighbor's lot, and if such ground has been pre- 
viously saturated with filth, a well should not be sunk. 

A properly constructed well should have tightly built 
walls so as to be impervious from the level of the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 45 

ground water up to the surface. In this way any 
infiltration of impure liquid from the upper soil sur- 
rounding the well may be prevented. The surface of 
the ground should be raised somewhat at the well, and 
graded so as to pitch in all directions away from the 
well. This prevents the entrance of surface washings. 
The opening of the well must be thoroughly covered, 
in order to prevent the falling into the well of vermin 
and smaller animals, or the washing in of decaying 
vegetable or organic matter. 

Driven or Tube Wells. — Better than dug wells are 
those known as "driven wells," tube wells, or "Abys- 
sinian " wells. They are constructed as follows : A 
wrought iron tube, ij to 2 inches diameter, having at 
its lower end a steel point or shoe perforated with num- 
erous holes, is driven into the ground, which must, of 
course, be free from stones or boulders, until the ground- 
water table is reached. If necessary, several lengths 
of tubing are screwed together by means of couplings, 
but for an ordinary suction pump the vertical depth of 
tubing, or the "suction-lift " should not exceed 25 to 28 
feet. The upper end of the tube is attached to the 
pump, and continued suction will soon wash away the 
sand at the lower end of the pipe, and furnish a stream 
of clear water. 

Rain Water Cisterns. — Wherever a well cannot be 
sunk, cottages should be supplied with rain water. This 
is collected from the roof and stored either in a tank 
placed in the garret, or else in an underground cistern. 
The latter keeps the temperature of the water moder- 
ately low throughout the year. Persons unaccustomed 
to drinking rain water object to it on account of its 



46 . SANITATION OF 

flat taste, but if it is carefully collected, properly stored, 
boiled before use or filtered and then cooled with ice 
and well aerated, it makes an exceedingly wholesome 
and agreeable drink. 

To determine the amount of rain water available from 
a certain roof, ascertain the amount of surface of its 
horizontal projection, and multiply this by the annual 
rainfall in feet and decimals of a foot. The total 
amount in cubic feet must be divided by two, to allow 
for unavoidable loss through evaporation and for wasted, 
impure roof washings. It is easy to arrive at a proper 
size for the cistern, if the amount of water which can be 
made available is known or estimated. 

In collecting roof water, it is important to allow the 
first washings from the roof, which always contain more 
or less organic filth in the shape of dust, horse dung 
from the street, excrements of birds, leaves from trees, 
etc., to run off on the surface. This may readily be 
accomplished by placing cut-offs on the rain-water pipes, 
which are worked by hand or else may be arranged to 
act automatically. The best roofing surface for col- 
lecting rain water is slate, and next to this shingles. 

Underground cisterns are usually built circular in 
shape, of hard burnt brick, laid in hydraulic cement. 
The walls of the cistern must be made perfectly water- 
tight, not only to prevent leakage, but also to prevent 
t^ie entrance into it of ground water from the outside. 
If an overflow pipe is provided, it should under no cir- 
cumstances communicate with any drain or sewer, or 
discharge into a cesspool. As soon as deUvered into 
the cistern, the water must be kept scrupulously clean, 
and any possible source of pollution should be removed. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 47 

It is a good plan to build into the cistern a filtering 
chamber to remove by straining the coarser impurities 
in the water. This may be done by building a partition 
wall in the cistern, thereby establishing a small clear 
water chamber, in which the suction pipe is placed. 
The dividing wall is built with courses of brick, some 
of which are laid dry, and thus act as strainers. This 
arrangement, it need hardly be said, wants periodical 
cleaning as much as any of the household filters. Cis- 
terns should be frequently inspected, emptied, and 
cleaned ; the opening at the top must be closed by a 
solid cover, to prevent the falling in of vermin, mice, 
rats, etc., and to guard against contamination by surface 
washings. 

Springs. — Dwelling-houses may also be supplied from 
a spring, by a gravity supply in case the spring is 
located on a hillside higher than the house, or if the 
spring is situated at a lower level than the house a 
hydraulic ram or a windmill may be used to pump the 
water. The spring should be enclosed by walls and a 
cover provided to guard the water against contamina- 
tion. Sometimes the spring is arranged to supply a 
small collecting basin or reservoir, in which the night 
flow can be stored, where pumping is intermittent, as 
with a hot-air or internal-combustion engine.* 

Filtration of Water. — The water supply for drinking 
purposes is often purified by means of dorriestic filtra- 
tion. This is especially desirable in the case of cistern 

* For a more extended discussion of the subject of " Water Supply 
for Country Houses," the reader is referred to the author's article on 
the subject in the Home Medical Library^ Vol. V., published by the 
Review of Reviews Publishing Company, 1907. 



48 SANITATION OF 

water. Household filters should act not only as 
strainers by removing suspended impurities, but they 
ought to act also chemically by oxidizing a part or all 
of the dissolved organic matter ; most important of all, 
however, is the requirement that they should be germ- 
proof, i.e. retain the germs which the water may con- 
tain. Various materials are used for domestic filters, 
amongst them being sand, sponge, flannel, animal char- 
coal, spongy iron, porcelain, natural sand-stones, and 
compressed infusorial earth. Nothing is more erroneous 
than the supposition that a filter, once started, will con- 
tinue to act forever, without further attention. What- 
ever the filtering material may be, it should be frequently 
cleaned, aerated, boiled, and sterilized ; from time to 
time it should be entirely renewed. It must, therefore, 
always be easily accessible. The smaller filters, which 
are attached to the faucets on the supply pipe, are gen- 
erally made reversible, and if this latter operation is 
regularly performed, they work quite well, although their 
action is of necessity largely a mechanical one only, 
i.e. they only strain the impurities of the water. One 
of the best germ-proof filters is the Berkefeld filter, 
which is made in several sizes, and so as to be attach- 
able to the kitchen faucet. Even this filter requires 
cleaning about once a week, and from time to time it is 
advisable to sterilize it. Larger filters are connected by 
means of piping with the pressure supply, and these, 
too, answer well, provided they have proper washing 
arrangements, enabling the periodical reversing of the 
direction of the filtering current. Other household fil- 
ters consist of portable vessels, filled by hand and not 
directly connected with the supply pipes. Filters are 



COUNTRY HOUSES 49 

also sometimes placed in cisterns or at the end of the 
suction pipe leading to the well. 

Service Pipes. — Pipes for conveying water to the 
plumbing fixtures may be of drawn lead, of tin-lined 
lead, or of block tin. Wrought iron is used exten- 
sively, either plain, galvanized, enameled, or made 
rustless by the Bower-Barff process ; rubber-coated, 
glass-lined, and tin-lined wrought-iron pipes are also made, 
but they are too expensive and hence not often used. 

Drawn-lead pipe is a material possessing many merits, 
and hence it is used extensively. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that some soft waters attack lead, a 
sufficient amount of lead being occasionally dissolved, 
particularly when the pipes are new, to cause danger- 
ous lead poisoning in persons drinking the water from 
such pipes. It is a good precaution in the case of 
new pipes to allow the water to run for a while, espe- 
cially if it has been standing in the pipes over night. 
After they are in use for some time, lead pipes become 
coated on the inside with a protective coat which seems 
to prevent the dissolving of lead. Tin-lined pipes, 
although more expensive, are much safer in use, but 
great care must be taken in making joints in such 
pipe, lest the tin be removed at the joints. Tin-lined 
as well as block-tin pipes should be used as suction 
pipes in wells and cisterns in preference to ordinary lead 
pipes. 

Plain wrought-iron pipes rust quickly, especially if 
not constantly kept full of water, and water conveyed 
through them is apt to cause iron stains in the wash- 
ing. A further disadvantage is the frequent choking up 
of the smaller sizes through rust. Pipes coated with 



50 SANITATION OF 

some kind of enamel are better and safer, provided care 
is taken in making the joints properly. Plain wrought- 
iron pipes, made rustless by the Bower-Barff process, 
have also been used to a limited extent for supplying 
water to dwellings. Wrought-iron pipes protected with 
a coating of zinc are used extensively, and such so-called 
" galvanized " pipes may be safely used, for, although 
water dissolves and is often found to contain salts of 
zinc, which are poisonous in large amounts, dilution 
makes them practically harmless. A more serious 
objection to galvanized pipes may be the fact that the 
zinc coating, unless applied with great care, soon wears 
off and ceases to protect the pipe against rust. Copper 
tubes, lined on the inside with tin, are occasionally used, 
but are expensive and troublesome to put up. In some 
of the Eastern States, drawn seamless brass tubes are 
used for hot-water pipes. Their chief advantage over 
lead is their greater durability, their neater appearance, 
and less liability to sag, although changes of tempera- 
ture affect brass pipes by expansion and contraction, 
causing leaky joints, especially where they are under 
heavy pressure. Brass pipes, if used for drinking-water, 
should be tinned on the inside. 

Plumbing Work. — Farmhouses, cottages, and suburban 
dwellings of moderate cost generally have but little 
plumbing work, especially where water is scarce, and 
where it has to be pumped to a distributing tank by 
hand labor. Where there is a more complex system of 
service pipes, tanks, and fixtures, there will be more or 
less outlay for annual repairs, besides the frequent 
annoyance of apparatus getting out of order, or refusing 
to work, or freezing up, or bursting. It is certainly 



COUNTRY HOUSES SI 

much cheaper, though less convenient, to have a prop- 
erly managed earth-closet and to confine the house plumb- 
mg to a kitchen sink, a force pump, a tank, and a kitchen 
boiler. The many advantages, however, of an indoor 
water-closet, as regards comfort, convenience, and health, 
must be conceded. A bathroom on the bedroom floor, 
containing a plain bath tub, is also a great sanitary con- 
venience and an important aid to bodily cleanliness and 
health. Hence, it pays well to arrange for it, even 
where one must forego the luxury of an inside water- 
closet. If means are not available for putting in a 
system of hot and cold-water pipes, the bath tub must 
be filled by pails. A small slop sink or slop hopper on 
the upper floor for removing chamber slops is useful and 
facilitates the work of servants but is not needed where 
there is a water-closet in the house. The sink and the 
tub may both be arranged in one room, and this should 
have plenty of ventilation and direct light from a large 
window opening to the outer air. Even the smallest 
cottage should have a plain kitchen or scullery sink. 
Where the kitchen is large, a set of stationary laundry 
tubs may be arranged near the sink, because they are 
much more convenient than the old-fashioned portable 
tubs. In larger dwellings a special room is generally 
set aside' for laundry purposes, placed next to the 
kitchen, or else below the kitchen, in the basement, 
and hot water is supplied from a kitchen boiler, heated 
by a waterback in the kitchen range. 

Arrangement of the Bathroom. — A bathroom is always 
desirable, even for the small cottage or farmhouse. It 
should contain a wash basin, a bath tub, and possibly a 
water-closet, though the latter should preferably be in a 



52 SANITATION OF 

separate compartment where the floor space permits of 
doing so. The arrangement of the necessary hot and 
cold water pipes, waste and vent pipes should be as 
plain, compact and as open — which does not necessarily 
mean unsightly — as possible. A small room about 
five feet by six feet will answer for a bathroom, when the 
water-closet is placed elsewhere. Keep all pipes outside 
of walls or partitions, have them where you can con- 
stantly see them and lay your hands on any stopcock 
or other plumbing detail, if necessary. Dispense with 
woodwork as much as possible and arrange every fixture, 
especially the basin and the water-closet, so as to be 
open to inspection and accessible to the dusting-brush 
and wiping-cloth of the servants. It is important — for 
the sake of economy as well as on account of plain and 
straight arrangement of pipes — that the bathroom 
should be as nearly as possible directly over the kitchen 
so that one waste and vent pipe line may answer for the 
bathroom fixtures as well as for the kitchen sink. A 
little skill and foresight in planning will usually accom- 
plish this desirable feature. The bathroom should, 
however, be placed somewhat conveniently to the bed- 
rooms and should also be accessible from the hall. It 
is important that it should be warmed in winter time, 
for otherwise it would be not only useless, but a source 
of annoyance and expense because the plumbing would 
freeze up. 

Soil Pipes, Waste Pipes, and Traps. — The waste pipes 
inside of the house should have joints made thoroughly 
air and water tight ; they should be well flushed and 
well ventilated. The house sewer inside of the dwelling, 
up to a point five feet outside of the house walls, should 



COUNTRY HOUSES 53 

be of heavy iron pipe ; of cast iron, if kept below the 
floor ; of cast iron or wrought iron, if run along the 
cellar wall or ceiling. Always provide a sufficient num- 
ber of access-holes for inspection and for removing 
stoppages. 

The soil pipe or waste pipe should be of extra heavy 
cast iron, with strong hubs and well-caulked lead joints, 
or of asphalted or galvanized wrought iron with tight 
screw-joints and recessed drainage fittings. Pipes should 
run as straight as possible from the cellar to the roof, 
and be continued in full size at least two feet above the 
roof. The mouth at the roof should be left wide open. 
The following sizes of pipe should be adopted, viz. : for 
the soil pipe 4 inches, for the waste pipe 2 inches, for 
the main drain 4 or 5 inches. For branch waste pipes 
from fixtures use heavy lead pipe, i-^ or 2 inches in 
diameter, for sinks, basins, and tubs; 4 inches for water- 
closets, and 3 inches for slopsinks. Make all joints 
between lead and iron pipe with brass ferrules or brass 
screw nipples. 

Provide a running trap on the line of the main house 
sewer, placed either inside or outside of the house. 
Arrange a 4-inch fresh-air pipe, at the house side of the 
trap, and run it preferably some distance away from 
the house, placing the fresh-air inlet where it may be 
hidden from sight by shrubbery. 

Each fixture should be separately trapped near its 
outlet by a self-cleansing and safe trap. Dispense with 
overflow pipes as much as possible, but if they must be 
used let them join the waste pipe between the fixture 
and the trap. Traps should be either the siphon (S or 
running traps), in which case siphonage must be pre- 



54 SANITATION OF 

vented by an air pipe, or else the simpler and safer 
non-siphoning traps which do not require back-venting. 
Mechanical traps, i.e. those having in addition to the 
water seal a flap or ball valve, should not ordinarily be 
used.* 

Arrangement of the Supply Pipes. — It is important to 
arrange all water pipes so they can be completely 
drained and emptied, when the supply is shut off. Pipes 
necessarily running on outside walls should be suitably 
protected against frost. In fact, in country houses it 
is of the greatest importance that the entire system for 
water distribution, comprising supply and waste pipes, 
cisterns, reservoirs, fixtures, and traps should be com- 
pletely and perfectly protected from freezing. Even 
where the building is small and the work not compli- 
cated, it is well to keep for reference a plan, showing 
the exact size, material, and location of all water-supply 
pipes, stopcocks, faucets, cisterns, etc. All service 
pipes should be kept accessible and wherever possible 
in plain sight. 

Water Tanks. — A tank for the storage of water is not 
required in cottages in which the only plumbing fixture 
is the kitchen sink. A suction pump is in such cases 
provided at the sink, and arranged so as to draw the 
supply either from the well or the cistern, or sometimes 
from both. 

But where a cottage has plumbing fixtures located on 
the upper floor, it becomes necessary to supply these 
fixtures from a house tank, located in the attic or 
directly under the roof. Water is forced to the tank by 

* For details see the author's various works on " House Drainage," 
♦' Plumbing," and " Sanitary Engineering of Buildings." 



COUNTRY HOUSES 55 

hand-labor, using a lift and force pump for this purpose, 
and in the case of more elaborate arrangements a gasoline 
or oil pumping engine may be provided, or else pumping 
is accomplished by means of a hot-air pumping engine. 

House tanks for the storage of water should be con- 
structed of cast-iron sectional plates bolted together 
and tightly jointed, or else they may be of boiler iron, 
with riveted joints. In both cases the rusting of the 
inside of the tank should be prevented by giving the 
tank several coats of paint. House tanks are also some- 
times constructed of slate. Cheaper than all these are 
wooden tanks, which are lined with tinned copper. 
Tank linings of lead, zinc, or galvanized iron are unde- 
sirable because the water may attack and dissolve a 
part of the lining. The water tank should be covered 
to exclude dust, flies, insects, etc. Ventilation to the 
roof is desirable. 

From the house tank the water is supplied to the 
plumbing fixtures under a constant head of pressure. 
The house tank should always have an overflow pipe, 
and care should be taken not to run this pipe into any 
soil or drain pipe. A good way to dispose of the over- 
flow is to run it into the roof gutter. In case such a 
method is not feasible, run the overflow pipe down to 
and over the kitchen sink, and make it answer as a tell- 
tale for use with the hand force pump at the sink. 

More recently house tanks have been done away to a 
large extent by substituting for the same closed pressure 
tanks which can be located in the cellar or outside in 
the ground. 

Plumbing Fixtures. — The kitchefi sink should be a 
plain, or better, a galvanized cast-iron sink, with edges 



56 SANITATION OF 

formed in roll-rim tc^m. The enameled sheet iron or 
stamped steel sinks -are not very durable, as the enamel 
soon chips off, and ilsis is also, though to a lesser extent, 
the case with enameled cast-iron sinks. For the better 
class of houses a yellow or white solid earthenware or 
porcelain sink should be adopted. 

The size of the sink should be as large as the avail- 
able space permits, leaving, however, room for a drain- 
board, at least at one end of the sink. A kitchen sink 
to be serviceable, should never be less than 27 or 30 
inches in length, 18 or 20 inches wide, and from 6 to 7 
inches deep. On the wall directly over the sink, and 
the full length of the sink and drainboard, there should 
be a splashback, either of iron, or of earthenware, or 
marble, with the joints between it and the wall well 
filled and made solid to avoid crevices for water bugs or 
roaches. It is advisable to set the kitchen sink at least 
2 feet 8 inches from the finished floor level, as this 
renders it much more convenient for use than when set 
lower. The sink should be supported by a pair of legs, or 
else be set on brackets ; the former make a stronger job, 
while the latter have the advantage of leaving the entire 
space under the sink free and unobstructed. The sink 
should be kept entirely open, and no wooden casing or 
box-like enclosure should be used. A drainboard should 
be provided at one or both ends of the sink ; this may 
be of well-seasoned ash or maple, and should be grooved 
and set slightly higher at the farther end so that the 
water and drippings from the washed dishes will run 
into the sink. One end of the drainboard should rest 
on the roll-rim of the sink, while the other should be 
supported by a strong bracket. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 57 

The sink should have two polished brass faucets for 
hot and cold water, set in the sink back at a convenient 
height above the sink, and the inside bottom should have 
a brass strainer, securely fastened to the sink with 
screws. The waste pipe should be heavy lead pipe, 2 
inches in size, trapped by a 2-inch lead trap, with brass 
trap screw for cleaning purposes. It is convenient to 
provide at the sink a soap cup, and a rack for kitchen 
towels, or else a roller towel fixture. 

Stationary washtiibs are a labor-saving device which 
should be put into every house, no matter how small, 
as they permit the washing to be done at home and in 
much quicker time than where portable tubs are used. 
A set of two tubs is sufficient for small houses ; a more 
complete arrangement requires three tubs, one for wash- 
ing, one for rinsing, and one for bluing. 

Instead of wooden tubs, which when cheaply made are 
liable to leak, and when well made are almost as expen- 
sive as other kinds, and which are always unsanitary, for 
wood is absorbent and liable to rot, I advise using either 
slate or Alberene (soapstone) tubs ; some of the arti- 
ficial cement stone tubs are also serviceable and cheap. 
Best of all are the roll-rim solid porcelain tubs, made 
both in white and in yellow ware ; some of the second 
grade of white tubs are nearly as good and serviceable 
as the expensive first-class tubs. 

Tubs should be set about 2 feet 9 inches from the 
floor, and they are generally supported in iron frames. 
If they are placed in the kitchen, tubs with holes in the 
back for the faucets should be chosen, as this permits 
the tubs to be fitted up with covers, which in a kitchen 
are useful as a dresser or table. But if the laundry is 



58 SANITATION OF 

in the cellar, or in a summer kitchen or shed in the rear 
of the house, it is better to omit the covers. Hot and 
cold-water supplies and faucets should be provided, also 
plugs and chains. The waste pipe should be from i^ to 
2 inches for each tub, and should be trapped by a trap 
of the same size. The tubs must always be placed 
where there is a good light. 

The bath tub until recently was usually a wooden tub 
Hned with tinned and planished copper, and provided 
with hot and cold-water faucets, either two single or a 
combination bibb, and with a brass standing overflow in 
place of chain and plug. A little better than copper- 
lined tubs are the steel-clad bath tubs, which require no 
other woodwork than a wooden rim, and which can be 
set in an open manner, on cast-iron feet, the same as 
the more expensive tubs of enameled iron or porcelain. 
Nowadays the manufacture of enameled iron tubs has 
been so perfected and their cost has been made so reason- 
able that they are used even in the cheaper class of 
houses. Those which are wide inside and which do not 
set too high on the floor should be chosen as being more 
convenient in use ; preference should always be given to 
porcelain tubs with roll-rim, and the cheaper iron 'tubs 
provided with wooden rims should be avoided. 

If cost is no objection the bath tub should be provided 
with a plain overhead douche or spray with a hot and 
cold-water non-scalding mixing valve. A curtain holder 
may be suspended over the tub and a rubber or a white 
cotton duck curtain hung from it to avoid splashing over 
the floor when the douche is used. Such a douche or 
rainbath will be found of inestimable value both in sum- 
mer and in winter. The floor in front of the tub, and 



COUNTRY HOUSES 59 

in fact the entire bathroom floor, may be of wood covered 
with linoleum ; in front of the tub may be placed a rub- 
ber or cork mat. 

Select a plain wash basin, either an enameled iron 
oval basin, which are nowadays made almost as good as 
earthen wash basins, or else use the neat and inexpensive 
all-porcelain basins which do not require a marble slab. 
Support the lavatory, if small and light, on neat brackets. 
If a larger marble slab and a porcelain bowl attached to 
it are used, the basin should be supported on legs. Set 
the basin slab at a height of 2 feet 7 inches or 2 feet 
8 inches from the floor ; a lower height than this necessi- 
tates an inconvenient stooping over. Provide a back of 
white solid porcelain or of marble, from 6 to 12 inches 
high, according to the length of the slab. Avoid placing 
the lavatory in a corner. Provide hot and cold-water 
faucets and supplies, also a i^-inch waste pipe and trap. 
A lavatory is not completely furnished without at least a 
towel holder or shelf, and holders for soap, sponge, and 
tumbler, all of which fixtures are now obtainable in neat 
and cheap designs. 

For the water-closet select a good earthenware flush- 
ing-rim, short-hopper closet, or better a pedestal wash- 
down closet, or best of all a siphon jet closet, all of 
which should preferably have a flushing cistern. Water- 
closets of the "washout" pattern should be avoided. 
The cistern should be set from 7 to 8 feet from the 
floor ; it should have a lever, chain and pull handle.* 
The water-closet should be arranged without any wood- 

* Some of the new forms of low-down tank closets work satisfac- 
torily, but the author warns against the use of any so-called "flusho- 
meter " closets having a valve instead of a tank supply, because these are 
rarely satisfactory in use. 



60 SANITATION OF 

work except the seat, the closet bowl standing on all 
sides free on the floor. A closet thus arranged answers 
well for use as a urinal, and also for pouring out cham- 
ber slops. The seat of the closet should be an open 
round or oval seat attached directly to the bowl, and 
hinged so that it can be turned out of the way. If the 
water-closet is in a separate room — which arrangement 
is preferable — no cover to the seat is required. In a 
small bathroom the cover or lid may be tolerated, as it 
forms a convenient seat when dressing or undressing 
for the bath. Provide for the closet a toilet-paper 
holder, those for roll-paper being in many respects pre- 
ferable to those for sheet paper. The floor of the 
water-closet apartment should be of hard wood, or else 
an oilcloth or linoleum floor covering should be used. 
The water-closet bowl may be set up on a countersunk 
slate or marble platform. 

There are, of course, more expensive and handsome 
plumbing appliances available than above described, but 
the fixtures mentioned, if well set and fitted up, are 
good enough for all practical requirements of houses of 
moderate cost. The author has frequently pointed out 
that it is very desirable to have simplicity of all appara- 
tus and to avoid all complicated appliances. In select, 
ing fixtures, those made of durable material, and having 
durable fittings and parts, should be selected. The 
water-closet apparatus, in particular, should be as free 
as possible from all movable machinery, and other fix- 
tures should have as few fouling surfaces and hidden 
channels as possible. 

Sewerage. — The main house sewer outside of the 
building should be of strong, well-burnt glazed or vitri- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 6l 

fied pipe, circular in section, laid in straight lines, or 
else with curves of large radius at all changes in direc- 
tion. The joints should be made with a mortar of pure 
hydraulic cement. It is important that no cement 
should remain on the inside of the joints where it might, 
in hardening, cause obstructions. The bottom part of 
each pipe joint should be made tight with particular 
care. The drain pipes should be firmly laid at the 
bottom of the trench, if necessary on a bed of concrete. 
Grooves should always be cut out for the pipe sockets. 
The drain should be laid at an average depth of three 
feet below the level of the ground; all junctions of 
drains should be made with Y-branches. The fall given 
to the drain should, where practicable, be not less than 
one-quarter inch to the foot, for pipes 4 and 5 inches 
in diameter. Wherever the available fall is very 
slight some simple and inexpensive flushing appa- 
ratus should be provided at the head of the line of 
house sewer. 

The diameter or size of house sewers for country 
houses should not exceed 6 inches, and as a rule a 5- 
inch pipe is sufficiently large for the purpose, while the 
smaller cottages require only a 4-inch sewer. Until 
recently it was the custom to use drain pipes too large 
in size to be self-cleansing. To quote from an English 
publication on Sewerage : " The passion for too large 
pipes seems to be an almost universal one. The feeling 
seems to be that it is best to make the conduit for the 
sewage ' big enough anyhow,' and as a result, nearly 
every drain that is laid is so much larger than is needful 
that the cost of keeping it clear is often the most serious 
item of expense connected with it. 



62 SANITATION OF 

" One principle is very apt to be disregarded in regu- 
lating the sizes of house sewers and of sewers in gen- 
eral, that is, after water has once fairly entered a smooth 
conduit having a fall or inclination towards its outlet, 
the rapidity of the flow is constantly accelerated up to a 
certain point, and the faster the stream runs the smaller 
it becomes; consequently, although the sewer may be 
quite full at its upper end, the increasing velocity soon 
reduces the size of the stream, and gives room for more 
water. It is found possible, in practice, to make con- 
stant additions to the volume of water flowing through 
a sewer by means of inlets entering at short intervals, 
and the aggregate area of the inlets is thus increased to 
very many times the area of the sewer itself. Where a 
proper inclination can be obtained, a pipe, eight inches 
in diarneter, makes an ample sewer for a population of 
ten thousand. 

" It was formerly the custom with architects and en- 
gineers to enlarge the area of any main pipe or sewer in 
proportion to the sectional area of each subsidiary drain 
delivering into it. But this is no longer done, since it 
has become known that additions to the stream increase 
its velocity, so that there is no proportionate increase 
of its sectional area. For example, by actual observa- 
tion, it was found that the addition of eight junction 
drains, each three inches in diameter, to a main line 
of four-inch pipe, did not increase the sectional area 
of its flow, but made the flow only more rapid and 
cleansing." 

Sewage Disposal. — The question of the disposal of the 
liquid household wastes is an all-important, but often 
troublesome matter. While it may be comparatively 



COUNTRY HOUSES 63 

simple to dispose of the wastes from a cottage having 
only a kitchen sink, the difficulties are increased when 
country houses are provided with an abundant supply of 
water delivered under pressure, and utilized not only at 
lavatories and bath tubs, but also for the flushing of 
water-closets. 

The subject of sewage disposal is discussed at consid- 
erable length in Part III of this book, and it is the 
intention to mention here merely the simpler methods. 
Let us assume, as is the case in nearly all isolated coun- 
try houses, that there are no sewers with which connec- 
tion can be made. A direct discharge of the unpurified 
sewage into a creek, brook, or water course, or into the 
ocean is rarely permissible or available. The common 
practice in such cases, where the soil is at all porous, is 
to resort to the use of leaching cesspools. 

Leaching Cesspools. — The entire liquid wastes from 
the household are carried by means of the house drain 
to such a cesspool, being allowed to soak away into the 
soil. In a very few years the open joints of the stone 
side walls of the cesspool become filled with the more 
solid matters, with grease and scum, and the cesspool 
ceases to "leach." The organic matter retained in the 
cesspool undergoes a slow process of decomposition 
and creates noxious and disagreeable accumulations of 
gases. Usually the cesspool is unventilated, and the 
only exit for the gases generated in the same is through 
the house drain into the house pipes, and through the 
often defective joints and equally defective traps into 
the rooms of the house. 

Occasionally, two cesspools are used, one for the 
kitchen sink wastes, the other for the waste water from 



64 SANITATION OF 

the bathroom and water-closet. The conditions of the 
two cesspools, after they have been in use for some 
time, do not differ materially from each other, for 
the waste water from sinks, if stored in a cesspool, 
becomes in time as foul as any other organic liquid 
refuse. The arrangement of two cesspools is there- 
fore an even greater nuisance than the one first men- 
tioned. 

Moreover, it should be borne in mind that the question 
is not at all simplified where a house contains no water- 
closet, for it is well known that a leaching or open cess- 
pool for the waste water from sinks, basins, and bath tubs 
contaminates the soil around it in time just as much as 
if the excreta were added, the difference, if there be any, 
being merely one in degree. 

The smaller the house lot, the greater is the danger 
from an open cesspool. No leaching cesspool should 
ever be placed nearer to a dwelling-house than one hun- 
dred feet, and it should always be put on lower ground 
where this exists. To locate an open cesspool close to 
a well which furnishes the drinking water to the house- 
hold, or to a rainwater cistern, is a practice which should 
be forbidden by law. 

Tight Cesspools. — If a cesspool or sewage tank must 
be used it should be built thoroughly water tight. It 
should be of moderate dimensions, preferably circular in 
shape, built with hard-burnt brick, laid in hydraulic 
cement mortar and the tank should be well rendered 
inside and outside with pure Portland cement. The 
tank should be arched over and covered with a tight iron 
cover. The cesspool must be emptied, cleaned, and dis- 
infected at frequent intervals, and it should, if possible, 



COUNTRY HOUSES 65 

be well ventilated. The cesspool should preferably not 
be located in a direction from the house from where the 
prevailing winds blow. 

An important modification and improvement upon 
this plan consists in building the cesspool in two cham- 
bers, the first one being intended as a retaining chamber 
for grease, or for the solid organic matter ; from this 
intercepting chamber the liquid overflows into the 
second chamber. 

Sewage Irrigation. — It is much to be preferred to 
arrange for a distribution of the liquid contents of a 
cesspool or sewage tank on or near the surface of the 
ground. In this way sewage may be used to sprinkle 
and irrigate a lawn, a kitchen garden, a group of shrubs, 
or a vine trellis. The intercepted solids should be 
removed at frequent intervals and may be dug as ferti- 
lizers into the ground. If this arrangement is adopted 
the above described construction of the sewage tank in 
two chambers should be followed, the smaller of the 
two chambers being for the solids and the larger for the 
liquids. The overflow pipe connecting both chambers 
should dip several feet below the water level of the 
intercepting tank, so as to avoid carrying scum or grease 
with the water. The liquid manure may be pumped 
out by means of a small cesspool pump, set over the top 
of the liquid cesspool chamber. 

Earth Closets. — The question of the disposal of the 
wastes from the household is, to a certain extent, simpli- 
fied, and the liquid manure is more easily removed and 
taken care of, where the cottage contains no water- 
closets. But, in that case, it has been usual to substitute 
for a water-closet a privy vault located either close to the 



66 SANITATION OF 

house, and thus constituting in itself a formidable nuis- 
ance, or placed at the remotest corner of the lot, in 
which case it is rendered difficult of access in stormy 
weather and in winter time generally. In any case, the 
privy rivals with the leaching cesspool in nastiness and 
danger to health. It pollutes the soil, taints the water 
in the well, and contaminates the air of the whole 
neighborhood. Privy vaults should always receive un- 
qualified condemnation. In the various appliances known 
as earth or ash closets, we find a better and cleaner 
substitute for the privy. 

I do not feel justified in recommending the use of an 
earth closet inside of a cottage, except for the use of 
invalids. It is, however, not very difficult to arrange it 
so as to be quite near the rear part of the house, and to 
make it accessible from the house by a not too conspicu- 
ous, well-covered, shady, dry, and sheltered walk. The 
shed, in which the earth closet is placed, should be well 
'built, strong and tight, and preferably plastered, so as 
not to be too cold in winter storms, but it should also 
be sufficiently ventilated. Expensive forms of earth 
closets, with mechanical apparatus for throwing a fixed 
quantity of earth after each use, are sold and generally 
give satisfaction when used intelligently, but in the 
case of cottages of low cost a plainer form of this 
closet answers the purpose fairly well. The earth 
manure can be advantageously used in the kitchen 
garden or else it may be disposed of to neighboring 
farmers. 

Regarding earth closets, I quote the following from 
the annual report for 1892 of the State Board of Health 
of Maine : 



COUNTRY HOUSES ^7 

" All that is needed is a common closet, a supply of dry 
earth, a water-tight receptacle beneath, and a conven- 
ient way" of disposing of its contents at quite frequent 
intervals. The receptacle should be wholly above the 
surface of the ground, and may consist of a metallic- 
lined box, a half of a kerosene barrel with handles on 
it for removal, or still better, a galvanized iron pail. 

'' The receptacle may be removed through a door in the 
back of the closet, or in front of the seat, or by having 
the seat hinged and made to open backward it may 
be removed in that way. 

" The earth should be common garden or field loam finely 
pulverized. Road dust does well, but sand is not suit- 
able. Coal ashes are also good. Whichever of these is 
used should be dry and screened through a sieve with 
about quarter-inch meshes. The dry earth may be kept 
in a box or bin so arranged, where it can be, that it may 
be filled from the outside of the closet, or it is quite 
convenient to have one-half of the seat hinged, and 
beneath it the small compartment to hold the supply 
of earth. In this box or bin holding the earth there may 
be a small tin scoop which may be employed in sprink- 
ling the earth, a pint or more each time the closet is 
used. The main thing is to use enough of the earth to 
completely absorb all liquids, and this requirement, of 
course, precludes the throwing of slops into the closet. 

*' Arrangements could easily be made with gardeners or 
with farmers for the daily removal of the contents of 
these receptacles for fertilizing purposes." 

Slopwater Disposal by Sub-Surface Irrigation. — The dis- 
posal of the slopwater, consisting of the chamber slops 
and of the kitchen water, may be effected where there 
are grounds about the house, which slope somewhat 
away from it, by the method usually known as the sub- 
surface irrigation system. This consists in placing a 



68 SANITATION OF 

series of common 2 or 3 -inch unglazed and porous drain 
tiles in parallel lines in trenches, dug to a depth of 
from 10 to 12 inches below the surface. These absorp- 
tion drain tiles are laid with open butt joints with a 
space of at least one-quarter of an inch between the 
tiles. Thus the sewage is distributed intermittently 
through a network of pipes into the upper layers of 
the soil, where it is acted upon by the nitrifying organ- 
isms contained in the soil, while the vegetation assists 
in the process. The liquid from which the grosser 
organic impurities have been removed is further purified 
by filtering through the soil. 

A sufficient number of tile lines, of moderate length, 
and not exceeding one hundred feet each, must be pro- 
vided to obtain the required capacity in proportion to the 
volume of daily sewage. It is absolutely required that 
the flow in the absorption drain tiles should be inter- 
mittent, for if a continuous dribble of sewage occurs, 
the tiles are sure to choke up in a short time, and the 
soil will become surcharged and swampy in single spots. 
Therefore, it is advisable to use a sewage flush tank 
in connection with the system. The sewage from the 
house accumulates in the tank and when this becomes 
filled it discharges automatically, at certain intervals. 
Where the quantity of sewage is small, the discharge 
of the tank can be economically effected by means of 
a gate valve placed on the outlet drain leading from the 
bottom of the tank to the irrigation field. In this case, 
hand labor is required to operate the system. The 
alternative is to use one of the many forms of automatic 
sewage siphons. Such a system answers admirably for 
the inoffensive disposal of the sewage from isolated 



COUNTRY HOUSES 69 

country houses. It is equally practical when water- 
closets are fitted up in the house, but in this case the 
solids should be intercepted in a small receiving reser- 
voir or chamber, which requires frequent cleaning, 
otherwise the distributing tiles may speedily choke and 
create a nuisance in the disposal field by ceasing to per- 
form their work properly. 

Sewage distribution on the surface, while somewhat 
simpler, requires a larger area of ground, and cannot be 
carried out ia the immediate neighborhood of houses. 
It is also apt to be somewhat more troublesome in 
winter time. 

Other methods of sewage disposal for country houses 
comprise septic tanks, contact beds, and trickling filters. 
Reference to these more recent biological disposal 
methods is made in Part III. 

Garbage Disposal. — In small country houses, the 
problem of the removal and disposal of the kitchen and 
house refuse is simple, as a rule, for much of the 
kitchen offal can be readily disposed of to farmers, 
while parts of it may be utilized on the home grounds, 
where a few domestic animals are kept, or else they 
may be thrown in shallow layers into a trench, dug 
for this purpose, and covered up with some lime and 
earth. 

If the house has a large set range, in which either wood 
or coal is burned, a large part of the kitchen garbage 
may be disposed of by drying and carbonizing it in 
special household garbage destructors, after which it may 
be thrown into the kitchen fire. 

Sweepings, old dust rags, and other dry refuse may 
be best disposed of by direct burning in the range. 



70 SANITATION OF 

Household Garbage. — It is inadvisable to burn fresh 
kitchen garbage in a range, for it contains a large 
amount of moisture and the process would destroy the 
linings and fittings very quickly and would give off offen- 
sive smoke and smell in the kitchen. A much better way 
is to dry and desiccate the garbage, to carbonate it by 
heat, and then to burn it up in the fire. A practical device 
for accomplishing this purpose, the construction of which 
is based on sound principles, -is the household garbage 
carbonizer, which consists essentially of two parts, namely: 
first, a horizontal cyhnder or drum a little larger in diameter 
than the size of the smoke pipe, which cylinder is inserted 
permanently in the smoke pipe between the range and the 
chimney flue; second, a removable front piece in disk 
shape to which is attached an inside perforated basket or 
tray. When this front end is inserted into the drum the 
area of the space around the basket is somewhat larger 
than the area of the smoke pipe and therefore the draft 
is not obstructed. 

The use of this device is simplicity itself. The basket 
with the fresh garbage is inserted into the drum. The 
fire gases and smoke from the kitchen range pass around 
and through the basket, drive off the moisture in the 
garbage and slowly carbonize the same, i.e., they reduce 
it to charcoal. The resulting product is very serviceable 
as a kitchen fuel. No fat should be put in the basket, as 
there would be danger of its catching fire. 

The entire carbonizing process is accomplished without 
any objectionable odors, and the carbonizer does not 
interfere in the slightest with the regular use of the range. 
No extra fuel and but very httle attention is required. 
The device can be applied to any form of coal or wood- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 7 1 

burning stove or range, and it is manufactured in various 
sizes and styles. Experience shows that the servants 
soon learn to appreciate the advantage of the device 
because it saves them labor in the kitchen. The fact that 
this appliance can be successfully applied to all kitchen 
wastes (except fat) and that the method is convenient, 
clean, and not costly should render its success assured. 
If every household were provided with a carbonizer, the 
work of the scavenger would be reduced to a minimum, 
and but little, if any, household garbage would have to be 
carted through the streets. 

The garbage carbonizer accomplishes three things in 
the following order, namely: first, it dries the garbage by 
driving out the moisture; second, it changes the dry 
garbage into charcoal; and third, it burns the latter in the 
kitchen fire. It not only destroys the household wastes 
without nuisance, but it transforms them into useful fuel. 
It is a practical, simple, convenient, effective, inexpensive, 
and easily apphed device, which does away with the 
nuisance of the garbage can. To the kitchen servant 
the device saves a good many steps daily by doing away 
with the necessity of a garbage can. It prevents the 
accumulation of putrefying matter in dwellings, and in 
cities it renders unnecessary the unsightly garbage carts 
passing through our streets. The very simplicity of the 
device should render it attractive to all housekeepers. 

The device described was put on the market some 
years ago and proved very successful in use. It is much 
to be regretted that the appliance is no longer manufac- 
tured. It would seem as if a useful device such as the 
one described would constitute a profitable one to 
manfacture. 



72 SANITATION OF 

A similar so-called domestic garbage burner is now 
made in Kalamazoo, Mich., which also can be attached 
to all kinds of ranges and stoves including gas and gasolene 
stoves. It has a tilting hopper into which the kitchen 
garbage and sweepings and litter are put. As soon as 
the hopper is closed the waste heat from the fire passes 
through and around the hopper and reduces its contents 
to carbon and ashes. In this way potato parings, egg- 
shells, bones, bits of meat, rags, melon rinds, and other 
offal can be readily destroyed. This device helps much 
in the same way as the one first described to solve the vexed 
question of garbage disposal. Destruction .by fire of all 
household garbage is certainly vastly better than its tem- 
porary storage on the premises, which invariably attracts 
flies, ants, vermin, and other insects. 

Another household apparatus for the disposal of garbage 
is the Victor cremator, made in Columbus, Ohio. This 
is operated by means of gas, and consists of a cylinder 
fourteen inches in diameter and twenty-four inches in 
height, which is lined on the inside with pure asbestos to 
retain the heat. It can be placed according to convenience, 
either in the kitchen or in the cellar, and requires a gas 
supply and a chimney connection. The apparatus con- 
sumes about twenty-five cubic feet of gas in half an hour 
and the average daily amount of garbage in a household 
is said to be consumed in from thirty to forty-five minutes. 
Properly used such a crematory outlasts several garbage 
cans, which wear out rapidly from the rough handling 
and the exposure to the weather, and are generally 
unsanitary, unsatisfactory, and offensive. After operating 
the device nothing remains but a heap of ashes, which 
can be readily disposed of. This crematory appears to 



COUNTRY HOUSES 73 

offer a practical solution for the economical and sanitary 
disposal, not only of kitchen garbage, but also of litter, 
sweepings, and other combustible household wastes. 

Garbage which cannot be disposed of in the manner 
indicated should be stored temporarily in impermeable, 
non-corrosive, covered cans or pails, and should then be 
removed as often as required. 

Hints on the Care of the House. — Home sanitation in- 
volves the constant maintenance of cleanliness in all 
parts of the house. Those which require the largest 
amount of care and attention and which must be scrupu- 
lously looked after to remain perfectly sanitary, are the 
places where the food is prepared, or where food sup- 
plies are stored, such as the kitchen, the pantry, the 
cellar, the storeroom, and the refrigerator. Plumbing 
work in bathrooms, kitchen, pantry, and laundry should 
also be constantly looked after and kept bright, neat, 
and clean. 

Both in summer and in winter the house should be 
flooded daily with air, light, and some sunshine. To 
keep rooms shut up and dark for da3^s or weeks at a 
time cannot conduce to sanitary conditions. The heated 
period of summer is the time when the greatest care, 
perhaps, should be exercised, for at this time conditions 
are apt to arise in and about a house which may seri- 
ously menace the health of the occupants. 

Everything possible should be done to keep flies out 
of a house by providing window screens and self-closing 
screen doors. For the kitchen, the pantry, and the 
dining-room, screens are absolutely essential, for I have 
pointed out elsewhere that the germs of preventable 
disease may be transmitted to the food by means of flies. 



74 SANITATION OF 

In and about a country house all pools of stagnant 
water should be done away with, and rain-water cisterns 
should be tightly covered, or provided with fine netting. 
Such places are known to harbor and breed mosqui- 
toes, which as I have already mentioned are able to 
transmit malaria, while some species, fortunately found 
only in the Southern States and in tropical countries, 
are the carriers of yellow fever. 

A prudent house owner should make a weekly inspection 
of his cellar, noting particularly the cleanliness of the 
walls and floors, and attending to the removal of any 
matter which is perishable and liable to decay. Once a 
year the walls of the cellar should receive one or two 
coats of whitewash and the floor should be swept at 
least once a week, preferably with a cloth-covered broom 
which has been moistened by means of some disinfecting 
solution. Instead of this it may answer to sprinkle from 
time to time some liquid disinfectant over the floor. If 
there is a sink in the cellar or any cellar and area floor 
drains, these should be carefully looked after and a disin- 
fecting liquid poured into them. • Deep cellar areas are 
not infrequently the breeding places for mosquitoes, and 
to guard against them it is advisable to pour from time to 
time some kerosene oil into the area drains. 

In the management of the cellar of a house one should 
always remember that dirt or filth of any kind may breed 
disease, and that the air of the cellar passes not only 
through the cracks in the ceiling upward into the house, 
but that it is also liable to be drawn in at the furnace cold 
air box if this is not perfectly tight in the joints and thus 
be sent up in a heated condition to enter the apartments 
of the upper floors through the registers. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 75 

The air of the cellar should be purified from time to 
time by keeping lime or charcoal exposed in a shallow 
vessel. The cellar should be well aired by opening the 
windows daily, and this on days when the outside air 
is not only very warm but also laden with moisture, 
should be done only at night to prevent the condensa- 
tion of the humidity on the colder cellar walls, which 
causes mildew and dampness of floors and walls. 

If there is an outdoor earth closet, this should receive 
care and attention at least once a week. No liquid 
wastes or slops of any kind should be disposed of by 
throwing them into the earth closet, neither should they 
be dumped on the ground near the house, nor near the 
well or the cistern. 

If there is a well, it should be at all times guarded 
against surface pollution. The soil, the water, and the 
air around a country house should be kept pure and 
undefiled. 

Pails or other vessels used for the storage of garbage 
should be scrubbed once a week with hot water and 
soapsuds, or with water and ammonia or soda, and after- 
wards they should be aired outside of the house. The 
occasional use of a disinfecting solution or of carbolic 
acid in powder form is advised. 

It is of the greatest importance that proper care be 
given to the refrigerator and to the place where it 
stands. The refrigerator should always be set on cas- 
tors and be portable or removable ; built-in ice boxes or 
refrigerators are not to be recommended. Once a week, 
at least, the interior of the refrigerator should be thor- 
oughly cleaned, the shelves taken out and scrubbed with 
hot suds and the whole exposed to the air and the sun 



'J^ SANITATION OF 

All corners, in which fragments of food or spillings are 
liable to accumulate, and the drain or waste pipes which 
carry away the water from the melting ice, should be 
particularly looked after. A little caustic potash dis- 
solved in very hot water should be poured through the 
waste pipe to keep it free from obstructions and to pre- 
vent its ultimate stoppage. The tray or pan in the 
floor under the refrigerator collects in a short time a 
good deal of slime from the ice and dust from the air, 
and, therefore, should be well cleaned and cared for. 
Milk and other articles of food spoil very rapidly and 
become unfit for use where a refrigerator is not well 
taken care of and kept in a sanitary condition. A well- 
kept refrigerator should be entirely odorless and it 
should be remembered that the low temperature of the 
ice box prevents any odor from becoming very pro- 
nounced, but as soon as the ice is all melted away 
the peculiar smell from an ill-kept refrigerator readily 
announces the fact that decomposition goes on in the 
interior of the box, and the warning thus given should 
never be neglected. 

Dusting and Sweeping. — In large cities an enormous 
amount of dust is constantly generated, disseminated, and 
introduced into the houses, but even in the country the 
localities are exceptional where dust does not come in 
from outdoors to settle on the carpets, furniture, books, 
upholstery and curtains. 

Country houses located close to a highway are notable 
sufferers in recent years, owing to the rapidly increasing 
number of automobiles, and this is particularly the case 
where the speed of such vehicles is not limited to a moderate 
amount, wherever they pass near dwellings. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 7/ 

Indoor dust has been well called the bane of the tidy 
house-keeper, while outdoor dust may become an 
extremely annoying factor to the pedestrian. That dust 
is a serious nuisance cannot well be disputed, but what 
is of much more importance from a sanitary point of 
view is that dust may become dangerous as a factor in 
the production of disease, particularly of the organs of 
breathing. Street dust may also become a source of 
danger if it gathers and settles on the food stuff which is 
exposed in front of their shops by grocers and others. 

We may distinguish between street dust, industrial, and 
domestic dust. Much of the outdoor dust is due to the 
bad practice of burning soft coal, but all floating dust 
also carries a large number of bacteria and it may carry 
germs of disease. 

Much can be done to reduce the dust nuisance outdoors 
by adopting smooth and easily cleaned paving materials, 
by using tightly covered ash and garbage carts, by not 
permitting the dry sweeping of streets, nor the sweeping 
of the dust from houses, workshops, or stores into the 
streets. 

Indoor dust can to some extent be prevented by abol- 
ishing carpets and using instead loose rugs or mats; by 
adopting building and floor construction which do away, 
at least to a certain extent, with accumulations of dust 
underneath the floor boards; by adopting hardwood floors 
and using few light hangings instead of heavy curtains 
and fluffy upholstery. 

In many households antiquated methods of cleaning still 
prevail. The use of the feather duster should be either 
abolished entirely, or else it should be permitted only 
when all the windows can be opened wide. It is far 



78 SANITATION OF 

preferable to make use of a moistened dust cloth. In the 
same way the ordinary method of floor sweeping should 
be condemned and the wet mopping up of floors should 
be recommended. Carpets should be sprinkled with 
moist tea leaves, or damp sawdust, or coarse salt before 
they are swept. The improved carpet sweepers are better 
than ordinary brooms, and for well-to-do households the 
new methods of vacuum cleaning, of which there are 
several systems, portable as well as stationary, are worthy 
of being looked into. 

In winter time when the heating apparatus is in opera- 
tion much dust enters our houses through the cold air 
box, and a great improvement can be effected by adopting 
cheese-cloth screens for filtering the air supply. 

The Care of Plumbing Work. — A few words should 
be said about the proper care of plumbing work. The 
term, as used here, should be understood to signify 
the precautions which it is necessary to take to keep 
plumbing work in good and efficient working order, and 
in a sanitary condition. The simple matter of the mere 
cleaning up and polishing of the brass and nickel fit- 
tings and trimmings of plumbing appHances will not be 
referred to in the following hints. 

In order to maintain a plumbing and house drainage 
system in a good condition it is necessary, above all, 
that stoppages in waste pipes, in traps, or in the house 
sewer and its various branches be avoided. 

Where the drain and waste pipes are kept exposed in 
the cellar, and are provided with brass clean-out screws, 
it is a good plan to have these opened up once a year, 
and to run a swab through the drain or waste pipe to 
remove any accumulation of solids. Care should be 



COUNTRY HOUSES 79 

taken to replace the cleaning screws and to close them 
perfectly air tight. 

All traps, including the main house trap where such 
is used, should be cleaned out at regular intervals, and 
this precaution is very necessary in the case of traps for 
kitchen or pantry sinks and for laundry tubs, the former 
being liable to accumulate grease or coffee grounds, 
while the latter are apt to catch and hold back much 
lint from the wash. In this way bits of rags or strings, 
hair combings, lint from towels or napkins, pieces of 
absorbent cotton, burnt matches, etc., are removed, 
which if left may either clog the trap and the waste, or 
lead to the unsealing of the trap by capillary attraction. 
Matches, in particular, should not be permitted to be 
thrown into any plumbing fixture, as they often lodge 
in the trap and thus lead to accumulations of solid 
matters. 

The strainers of fixtures require a weekly cleaning 
and looking after, for they also collect lint and hair, 
which are apt to clog the outlets of the fixtures. 

In the case of kitchen sinks, the most frequent source 
of trouble is grease, and next to that tea leaves and 
coffee grounds. Grease should never be permitted to 
run to waste in a sink ; it should be scraped from the 
pots, pans, and table dishes and then collected in a spe- 
cial receptacle for removal or disposal. In the same way 
it is advisable to catch tea leaves or coffee grounds by 
means of a suitable sink strainer and sieve, and to throw 
them into the garbage can. No solid food scraps or 
waste bits of meat should be disposed of through the 
kitchen sink. 

All traps should be frequently flushed with plenty of 



80 SANITATION OF 

water, preferably hot water. After the use of a wash 
basin, bath tub, or sink, it is a good practice to let some 
clean water run through the fixture, and thus to leave 
clean water standing in the trap until the next use of 
the fixture. The occasional use of caustic potash dis- 
solved in boiling water is recommended as being an 
excellent and cheap method of keeping pipes from stop- 
ping up. Occasionally, some liquid disinfecting solution 
should be thrown into the traps. 

Iron sinks are kept clean with kerosene, or with soap 
and water. Porcelain sinks and enameled iron sinks 
should never be cleaned with sapolio or similar gritty 
cleansing soaps, but some of the special preparations, 
which are now readily available and widely advertised, 
should be used. 

In the case of bath tubs and wash basins, the inacces- 
sible overflow pipes, and the hidden or secret waste 
valve fittings are the most usual sources of bad odors, 
which latter are due to accumulations of decaying soap. 
The secret waste valves or plugs, which are arranged to 
be lifted out, should be washed every week with ammo- 
nia and warm water. The overflow holes of the basins 
or tubs should be cleaned as far as this is practicable ; 
the later forms of basins have detachable metal overflow 
strainers, and in these the overflow may be kept toler- 
ably clean and inoffensive. 

Water-closets should be washed and flushed once a 
week with boiling water and concentrated lye. Once in 
a while, a solution of copperas, or of carbolic acid, may 
be poured into the closet bowl and trap to disinfect them. 
The wooden seat and the marble floor slab on which the 
modern closet stands require particular attention. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 8 1 

Solid porcelain and enameled iron bath tubs are kept 
clean and bright by the use of special cleansing powders 
which do not scratch the enamel surfaces. 

In cold weather, care should be exercised to prevent 
the freezing of pipes, traps, or fixtures. Householders 
realize the importance of this matter but builders do not 
always give it sufficient attention. The result of the 
carelessness of the builder or of the plumber is annoy- 
ance, trouble, and expense to the householder. Where 
plumbing is imperfect in this respect, all exposed pipes 
must be shut off and emptied in cold weather, particu- 
larly at night, when no water is drawn for use. All 
accessible pipes in exposed positions should be well 
wrapped with wool felt, or covered with magnesia- 
asbestos coverings. 

Particular care should be taken with plumbing work 
in those country houses which are left closed for the 
winter. All pipes, traps, and fixtures should be com- 
pletely drained and left empty. Equally necessary is 
the protection of plumbing work in houses left vacant 
during the summer. In this case, it is required to shut 
out the sewer air by providing protection by other 
means than those afforded by the water seal of the 
common forms of traps. Olive oil and glycerine are 
largely used to fill the traps in preference to kerosene 
oil which is too quickly volatilized, and hence affords no 
security for a greater period than two or three weeks. 

House Disinfection. — While, as a rule, house disinfection 
is only practiced after the occurrence of a case of infec- 
tious disease, it would seem to me that it would be 
advantageous to practice disinfection at other times. It 
would, for instance, seem to be advisable not to move 



82 SANITATION OF COUNTRY HOUSES 

into a house just vacated by other tenants, whose habits 
of cleanliness and conditions of health may not be known 
to the new tenants, without first applying some disin- 
fectant, if not to all the rooms, at least to the bedrooms. 

A convenient way of disinfecting a room is by means 
of the Scheering disinfecting and deodorizing lamp, 
in. which formaHn pastilles are evaporated. The advan- 
tage of this disinfectant is that the fumes are neither 
poisonous nor destructive to furniture, clothing, or books. 
Disinfection by means of sulphur burned in candle form 
is also quite frequently practiced. Sometimes disinfection 
is applied in a house in order to rid it of some animal 
pests, like cockroaches, fleas or bedbugs, and a word of 
caution seems necessary where such disinfection is 
carried out by means of the fumes of hydro-cyanide of 
potassium, because the fumes are a deadly poison. 

Stationary ice boxes, as well as portable refrigerators, 
should be washed out from time to time with a formalin 
solution, or disinfected by means of the lamp and the 
formalin pastilles. 

It is furthermore an excellent practice before the fur- 
nace is lit to use in the evaporating pan some liquid form- 
alin diluted with water, or else the Sanitas disinfecting 
liquid. 

Note. — Much practical information on the subjects discussed in this 
chapter may be derived from a perusal of a most excellent little up to- 
date pamphlet, entitled "Modern Conveniences for the Farm House." 
The author is Miss E. T. Wilson, C. E., and the pamphlet was prepared 
in 1906 for the United States Department of Agriculture, and is known 
as, " Farmers' Bulletin No. 270." 



II. 

WATER SUPPLY. 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF COUNTRY 
HOUSES 



In the case of buildings located in the country the 
engineer engaged in the problem of water supply under- 
takes not only the instalment of the inside water supply, 
but he also plans and carries out the entire outside water 
supply system. 

Engineering Advice. — For country homes located be- 
yond the limits of city water works, the need of a pure, 
reliable, and ample water supply should always be one of 
the chief considerations. In order to advise intelligently 
on the methods of obtaining it and to prepare the required 
plans, a great many points have to be considered. The 
advantages and disadvantages of the different schemes 
which offer a possible or a suitable solution of the problem 
must be carefully weighed before making a decision. 
Rather than make a decision for themselves and incur the 
risk of failure, owners of country mansions and estates 
should seek the disinterested advice of a competent 
hydraulic engineer. 

Points of Importance in Studying Problems of Water 
Supply. — The order in which the different points of 
importance are taken up is usually the following: — The 
available sources of supply, be they springs, wells, brooks, 
rivers, lakes, fresh water ponds, surface waters from 
dammed-up water sheds, or collected rainwater, must be 
examined. The location and elevation of the proposed 

8s 



S6 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

source of supply with respect to the site of the buildings to 
be supplied usually determine the question whether a 
gravity supply or a pumping system must be adopted. 

In determining upon a source of supply, it is well to 
bear several general facts in mind: first, that the nearer 
the source is to the buildings, the smaller will be the cost 
of the water supply system, but the greater becomes the 
risk that the water may be, or may become, unfit or dan- 
gerous to use; second, that surface sources, such as springs, 
dug wells, shallow driven wells and cisterns, yield, as a rule, 
a supply which is limited in volume; third, that where 
larger volumes of pure supplies are required, deep or 
Artesian wells should be provided, which are not, as a rule, 
liable to pollution from surface impurities. 

The quality of the water proposed for use is of the fore- 
most importance because impure water, containing disease 
germs, is a known vehicle of a large amount of preventable 
disease. The determination of the quality of the supply 
involves chemical and bacteriological analyses, as well as 
examinations of the water sources, of the surroundings, or 
of the watershed. As a rule, mountain springs, brooks 
and lakes in uninhabited regions, and deep wells yield pure 
and wholesome water; water from shallow wells and from 
rivers or ponds must be considered dangerous and unsafe 
unless its purity is established beyond the shadow of a 
doubt; cistern water and surface water from cultivated 
farm lands should be regarded with suspicion. 

Means for the prevention of the contamination of the 
source of supply must- in many cases be provided ; and on 
the other hand, where a water is already slightly polluted 
measures or methods for its purification must be designed 
and planned. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 8/ 

The quantity of water available from the source selected 
must be compared with the quantity estimated as the 
probable future consumption. This is quite important, 
because mxany of the available sources of water supply in 
rural districts are limited or scanty in volume. 

It is likewise necessary to determine, at the outset, the 
water pressure iQ(\\i\iQdi for domestic use and also for fire 
protection. If the water must be pumped, various systems 
may be adopted, such as pumping to a reservoir, to an 
elevated tank, to a standpipe, to house tanks, or else water 
may be pumped directly into the supply mains, or finally it 
may be pumped into pressure tanks. 

This subject naturally leads to the consideration of the 
next matter of importance, which is the determination cr 
selection of the pumping plant , and of the power or motive 
force to be used for lifting the water. This, in the case of 
smaller farm buildings or cottages, may be either hand or 
animal power; in the case of larger country houses, the 
motive power may be obtained from gas, hot air, gasoline, 
oil, electricity, the force of the wind or the power of falling 
water; in the case of very large or extensive buildings, cr 
groups of buildings, the motive force may be either steam 
or electric power. 

The water after being pumped from the source of supply 
must be stored in reservoirs or in tanks. Here again, 
several methods are available, such as the construction of 
a stone or earth reser\^oir, the erection of wooden or iron 
tanks on wooden, iron, or masonry supports; the building of 
a tall standpipe, which may be either open or enclosed, 
and finally the use of pressure tanks, located either in the 
cellar or outside of the building, in the ground. 

After being pumped and stored, the water must be 



88 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



brought to the buildings where it is to be used. This 
involves the consideration of both the inside and the 
outside water supply distribution systems, and the arrange- 
ment in detail of the water piping. Of the greatest 
importance in the case of country houses or institutions, 
located far away from the protection which a good city fire 
department affords, is the provision for indoor and outdoor 
-fire protection appliances, for which an ample volume of 
water must be instantly available. 

The various points outlined in the foregoing will now 
be taken up more in detail. 

Springs. — Springs are natural outlets at which under- 
ground water flows out at the surface. In some parts of 




Fig. I. — A Spring as a Source of Water Supply. 



the country springs yielding a pure water are numerous 
and are considered a valuable source of supply (see Figs, i 
and 2). Spring water is usually palatable, wholesome, 



COUNTRY HOUSES 89 

pure, and free from organic impurities, owing to the natural 
filtration going on while it passes through the subterranean 
strata and before it crops out, to form a spring. It is, of 
course, best and most convenient if springs are found 



l— — [ — . ^ ■^'■^* — 






]^^^i^Mm 








'^'' ^^^^^fe- 1^^ ; iP !*^K 


..i^^^^^^ifm^^ %: . :M 


■P^P*!'---:^ 



Fig. 2. — A Spring Issuing from the Rock. 

located at an elevation considerably higher than the house 
and grounds to be supplied, because in that case the water 
may flow by gravity. If a spring emerges from the soil or 
rock at a lower level than the house, some form of pumping 
machinery is always required. But if its volume is larger, 
its yearly flow more uniform, and its character better than 
that of a spring at a higher elevation, it may be advisable 
to prefer a pumping scheme. 

In contemplating a water supply obtained by tapping a 
spring, it is of the greatest importance to give attention to 
the variation in the yield of the spring, which occurs almost 
regularly at the different seasons of the year. It often 
happens that, when a spring is selected which was examined 
perhaps during one of the wtt months of the year, generally 



90 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

the spring months, it is found, later on, that its flow 
becomes so reduced, during a dry summer or in the early 
autumn, as to be quite insufficient for the requirements of 
the building. It is obviously much safer, in all cases, to 
defer the examination or the gauging of the spring until 
after dry weather has set in, and to select a spring only in 
case it yields, even at such times of drought, an excess of 
water over the maximum supply required. In general, 
the yield of a spring depends upon the rainfall of the 
region, and upon the area of permeable strata which supply 
the spring. The more distant from the spring this area 
is located, the more regular its flow is apt to be; but it is 
rarely possible to determine, even after careful inspections, 
where the area supplying it is located, or what its size 
may be. 

For the protection of the spring against contamination it 
is necessary to wall it in; it is still better to construct a 
small storage basin in which the night flow of the spring 
can be stored and which holds a reserve cf water. This 
basin should have a tight cover, or a house should be built 
over the spring basin, to exclude surface impurities, dust, 
and animals, and to protect the spring against careless or 
malicious contamination. The pipe leading from the 
spring basin to the house should have a strainer, to keep 
back the larger substances in suspension, such as leaves, 
sticks, or other debris. 

"The freedom of many spring waters from deleterious 
mineral ingredients is well known. Many spring waters 
undergo a natural filtering process through the soil and 
are therefore clear and limpid, soft and excellently well 
adapted to the needs of the household. 

'^ There are, however, many springs that are liable to 



COUNTRY HOUSES 9I 

contamination from the wastes from human habitations, 
and this is particularly true of those copious flows which 
issue from the base of alluvial terraces along the larger 
rivers. These terraces are in many cases covered with 
less than twenty feet of loam, sandy and gravelly at the 
bottom, resting on a bed of clay or marl. Where such a 
terrace is dotted with dwellings the spring flowing from the 
porous bed may receive, after slight and altogether in-* 
sufficient filtration, disease-laden filth, and the freer the 
passage of water, the more copious the flow, the greater the 
danger. No matter how clear and sparkling such water may 
appear or how alluring its coolness on a sultry summer day, 
it may contain the germs of typhoid fever or other water- 
borne diseases and its apparent purity may be a ghastly 
sham." (From Bulletin United States Geological Survey.) 

Wells. — Wells are used in the country probably more 
than any other source of supply. Water from wells is 
really rain water which has percolated through the soil 
down to a water-bearing stratum; it is rain water purified 
in some cases by a natural filtration through percolation 
in the soil, but in other cases changed in character by reason 
of having taken up soluble mineral constituents from the 
geologic strata through which it flows. Well water may 
be regarded as underground water the same as spring 
water, but in the case of a spring, as we have seen, the 
water has found or forced a natural outlet whereas wells 
constitute artificial outlets, for they have to be sunk, dug, 
driven, or drilled to the water-bearing stratum "as the case 
may be, and moreover the water from wells must be lifted 
by pumping except in the case of the flowing wells. 

Although it is usual to distinguish between shallow and 
deep wells, there is no sharp demarcation between the two, 



92 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

and the designations "shallow" and "deep" really refer 
more to the nature of the underground strata into which 
a well is driven than to the depth of the well. Wells which 
are sunk to a depth of say from 15 to 30 feet to water 
flowing in a superficial layer of gravel or sand, which in 
turn rests upon an impervious stratum, are considered to 
be shallow wells; on the other hand, deep wells are those 
which go through an impervious stratum or through rock, 
in order to tap a different water table at a greater depth. 

Wells in Rock. — Regarding wells driven through rock, 
the following information given by the United States 
Geological Survey is of interest: 

"The very general belief that wells sunk in granite will get 
no water appears not unreasonable when we consider that 
granite is the hardest of rocks and that its surface outcrops are, 
as a rule, so free from pores or crevices through which water 
might circulate that the expectation of finding water by drilling 
would seem absurd. Within the last few years, however, the 
many successful wells drilled in crystalhne rocks have effec- 
tively proved the erroneous character of the old opinion. 

"The crystalhne rocks, such as granites, gneisses, schists, 
etc., Hke the sedimentary shales, hmestones, and sandstones, 
carry water in their pores — the microscopic spaces between 
the grains of solid mineral matter; but while the sedimentary 
rocks may absorb several per cent of their volume in water — 
sandstones about 15 per cent, limestones 5 per cent, and shales 
4 per cent — granites and other crystalline rocks rarely absorb 
water to more than one-half of i per cent of their volume, and 
the water in such rocks moves through the pores so slowly that 
it can never escape fast enough to be of value in wxlls. For- 
tunately, however, the crystalline rocks are traversed in various 
directions by many joints and crevices. An investigation of 
these joints shows two principal systems, one of which is nearly 
vertical and the other horizontal. The vertical joints, which 
may be hundreds of feet in length, while not at all regularly 



COUNTRY HOUSES 93 

spaced, are usually lo to 20 feet apart, trend in all directions, 
and may be inclined to the vertical at any angle up to 30 
degrees. The distance between the horizontal or sheet joints, 
which approximately parallel the surface, varies from a few 
inches near the surface to many feet at a depth of several 
hundred feet below. 

"The nearly vertical joints sen^e as channels for the admis- 
sion of water from the surface, while the sheet joints form 
reservoirs for its storage. As most of the joints are rather 
narrow, the amount of contained water is likely to be moderate, 
and the yield of wells in granite is seldom more than 10 gallons 
per minute, though some exceptional wells, pumped by steam, 
have yielded as much as 30 gallons a minute. Out of 72 
successful wells in northern Maine only two yielded more than 
50 gallons per minute. 

"The extreme irregularity of the jomt systems makes the 
success of any well in granite a matter of chance. Of two wells 
drilled within 50 feet of each other one may be a failure, the 
other a marked success. Records collected in southern Maine 
indicate that about 87 per cent of the wells drilled in granite 
supply water enough for ordinary domestic uses. 

"The depth to which drilling should be carried in granite, 
as indicated by the investigations made both in Maine and 
Connecticut, has a maximum limit of about 200 feet, below 
which the chances of success diminish rapidly. Out of 47 
wells reporting the principal water horizon, 17 or more than 
one-third, found it within 50 feet of the surface; 16 more, or 
over one-half, of the remainder, reached it within 100 feet of the 
surface; 7 or exactly half of the wells more than 100 feet deep, 
tapped their principal supply between 150 and 200 feet; and only 
4 wells, or 50 per cent of the entire number of recorded wells 
in granite over 200 feet deep, obtained it from lower depths. 

" Granite water, where not contaminated by surface drain- 
age, is excellent for drinking and is probably satisfactory for 
all other uses ordinarily made of water. 

" As to the cost, which is necessarily an important factor in 
the sinking of wells, the price for drilling 6-inch wells in 
granite on the coast of Maine ranges from four to six dollars 



94 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



per foot, the higher figure being the more common. The cost 
of driUing granite wells and blasting open wells in the same 
rock, is in some sections of Maine the same for either type, 
six dollars per foot. Its freedom from the great danger of 
pollution, common to all open wells, makes the drilled well 
in every case preferable. 







Fig. 3. — A Dug Shallow 

Well. 



Fig. 4. — A Shallow Driven 
OR Tube Well. 



Shallow Wells. — Shallow wells should always be looked 
upon with suspicion because they are liable to become, or 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



95 



to be, polluted, particularly in populous districts, but not 
to a lesser degree on the farm, if they are located close to 
outhouses, cesspools, stables for horses, or cow bams. 
The water from shallow wells is rain water which has 
percolated through the permeable surface strata and which 
lies over or on some underlying impervious stratum. 

Shallow wells are constructed either by digging a hole 
of sufficient diameter, and lining it after completion with 
stone or brick walls — the so-called "steining" of wxlls — 
(see Fig. 3), or else they consist of small wrought iron 
tubes i-^- to 2 inches in diameter driven into the ground to 
the depth of the underground supply (see Fig. 4). It is 
worth mentioning that the diameter of a well has not so 




Fig. 5. — A Bucket or Draw Well. 



great an influence on the yield of water as commonly 
thought, and very large supplies may be obtained from 
wells only 4, 6 or 8 inches in diameter. 



96 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

In general, bucket or dip wells are not as good as pump 
wells, because they are more readily polluted by surface 
impurities, or by the pail, bucket or other form of vessel 
dipped into them to raise the water to the surface (see 
Fig. 5). All dug wells should be periodically cleaned. 

Contamination of Wells. — It is of the greatest import- 
ance, in locating a shallow dug or driven well, to examine 
first into the direction of the flow of the underground water, 
in cases where the drainage of the house depends upon 
the use of open cesspools, a method which, as will be pointed 
out in Part III, is never to be recommended. Along the 
southern shore of Long Island, many wells on farm prop- 
erties may be found located "above" the cesspool, the 
contention apparently being that any soakage from the 
latter into the underground water course will not con- 
taminate the well, as the flow will be away from the well. 
In this locality, one frequently encounters the assertion 
that those wells which have a source of contamination 
above them are dangerous to health, whereas those which 
have cesspools helow them are safe. It should be under- 
stood that the words "above" and "below" refer in this 
connection, not to the slope of the surface, but to the 
direction of the underground flow. But even with this 
understanding the proposition is not by any means always 
true. The act of pumping a very large volume of water 
from a well, i.e. drawing more than its normal flow from 
it, without doubt alters the above conditions. The effect 
would be not only the lowering of the water in the well 
itself, but also the lowering of the surface of the under- 
ground water sheet for a certain distance all around the 
well. This distance, as is now well known, increases with 
the amount of pumping, and in this way sources of con- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 9/ 

tamination, like outhouses or cesspools, which ordinarily 
might be beyond the influence of the well, may be brought 
within the zone of contamination. 

The question whether a well may or may not become 
contaminated by a cesspool is, therefore, not merely a 
question of distance and of depth, but the means for 
drawling the water from the well must also be considered. 
With an old-fashioned bucket, drawing only a few gallons 
at a time, the danger may be very remote, whereas if a 
large pumping engine be put over the same well, the risk 
may become such as to render its use prohibitive. 

The usual methods used by chemists in determining 
whether a well water supply has been contaminated need 
not be considered here. The fact whether a connection 
exists between a cesspool and a well may be established 
by several tests, one of the simplest being the salt test, 
in which a large quantity of common salt is thrown into 
a cesspool, the presence of which in the water of the 
well can readily be ascertained by a chlorine test. 
Another test consists in the use of lithium, and still 
another in the use of fluorescent " uranine," which gives 
to the well water a bright aniline green color. Some 
chemists have used '^saprol" in order to detect the 
possible entrance of cesspool liquids into wells. It is 
claimed that such creosoHferous disinfectants may be 
detected by smell with a dilution of i in i million 
parts, and by taste when diluted to i in 2 million 
parts. 

Care should be exercised in so arranging dug wells that 
they are well protected against surface pollution by pro- 
viding at the top a tight and impervious covering to shed 
all surface water and by giving the upper end of the well a 



98 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

water-tight lining or wall to a depth of several feet, as 
shown in Fig. 3. 

Driven or Tube Wells. — Driven or tube wells are made 
by driving iron pipes with pointed lower end, or with a 
shoe attached to the pipe, into a water-bearing stratum at 
a moderate depth from the surface. In the majority of 
cases they are much safer than dug wells, because there is 
not the same amount of danger of pollution by surface 
leakage. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that 
a driven well yields water unfit for drinking, because the 
water comes from an already polluted underground water 
stratum. 

Where large volumes of water are required, and where 
the level of the water can be maintained at a practical 
suction distance, several wells are driven and connected 
together by horizontal piping, thus forming a battery of 
wells (see Fig. 6). The manner of connecting a series of 
wells by a suction main to a pumping station is shown in 
Fig. 7. Where a system of driven wells, all connected to 
one suction line, is used, there is apt to be trouble with air, 
and the greatest care is required to make the suction pipe 
line perfectly tight. It also happens at times that one well 
may rob the adjoining one of water, particularly if the rate 
of pumping is excessive. 

Deep Wells. — Deep wells, sunk in sandy or gravelly 
soil, are driven or bored with tools similar to an auger, or 
else a casing is forced through the earth, into which the 
well pipe is inserted after the proper depth has been 
reached. In other cases, particularly in rocky strata, 
driven wells are drilled with special well tools or chisel 
drills, which are alternately raised and allowed to fall, 
being at the same time rotated. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



99 




100 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Deep wells are often wrongly designated as artesian 
wells, whereas the latter term should be applied only to 
wells in which the water flows out at the surface. In all 
cases where the flow from deep wells is not artesian, the 
water must be pumped, and the type of pumping machinery 
selected will depend upon the distance at which the water 
in the well stands from the surface. 

Deep wells, sunk to a moderate depth, usually yield 
a satisfactory quality of water, and the impermeable 
strata above the well water table assist in protecting the 
well from the infiltration of surface impurities. Very 
deep wells give, as a rule, a hard water which often is 
unsuitable for boiler use and in the laundry, but which 
can be made useful by the installation of a special water- 
softening plant. 

Wells located near the seashore sometimes yield 
brackish water, if the rate of pumping from the well 
exceeds the normal flow. Along the southern Atlantic 
coast of the United States many deep wells are driven, 
which, though charged with sulphur gases, yield a good 
and palatable water, for the reason that the sulphuretted 
hydrogen is soon liberated from the water. 

" Geologists of the United States Geological Survey, who 
investigated the underground water resources of the coastal 
plain of Virginia, have observed many wells which exhibit a 
variation of flow with the rise and fall of the tide, the flow being 
perceptibly larger at the flood than at the ebb tide. Some 
well drillers claim that practically all flowing wefls near tidal 
rivers or inlets from the sea feel the influence of the tide, some 
of them, however, but very slightly. 

"It is customary to explain these changes in yield by sup- 
posing a direct connection between the well and the river, lake 
or bay, but in many places, as in Eastern Virginia, such 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



lOI 




T era "^r.o "-^ 










Fig. 7. — Connection Between a Battery of Wells and Pumping 

Station. 



102 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

connection is clearly impossible, owing to the depth of the 
wells and the nature of the intervening beds, some of them 
dense tough marls and clays. These beds, though they do not 
transmit water, nevertheless contain it, and as water is practi- 
cally incompressible, any variation of level on the river or bay 
is transmitted to the well through the water-filled gravels, 
sands, clays and marls. Thus, when a porous bed is tapped 
by a well, the water rises to the point of equilibrium, and fluc- 
tuates as the hand of the ocean varies its pressure on the beds 
that confine the artesian flow." 

Deep wells, taking underground water at a considerable 
depth from the surface, are usually more permanent than 
surface supplies, but they are naturally much more ex- 
pensive to obtain. Where subterranean waters are to be 
utilized for supplies, the engineer can often derive valu- 
able assistance from the knowledge of an expert geologist; 
in certain complex problems of water supply the latter's 
services are, indeed, indispensable. 

The tubes for deep wells must be made large to accom- 
modate the deep-well pumping appliances; as a rule, the 
diameter is from 6 to lo inches. In pumping water from 
deep wells, the working plunger must usually be located 
at a great depth below the surface, and pumps cannot be 
attached to deep driven wells in the manner shown in 
Fig. 4; the latter method is only feasible where the water 
in the well stands within suction distance, or about 25 feet 
from the pump. Deep-well pumping machinery (see 
Fig. 25) is more expensive in first cost, and also more 
costly in repairs, because the working barrel cannot be 
readily reached. 

Artesian Wells. — Flowing or true artesian wells are 
artificial outlets, created by boring or drilling holes, in 
which the water rises to and above the surface (see Fig. 8). 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



lO' 



In a recent ''Water Supply and Irrigation Paper" of 
the United States Geological Survey, Mr. Fjuller dis- 
cusses the meaning and significance of the word "arte- 




FiG. 8. — A Flowing or True Artesian Well. 



sian," about the use of which there is considerable 
diversity of opinion, even among scientists and hydro- 
geologists. 

The term "artesian" was originally used in connection 
with flowing wells, obtained in the province of Artois in 
France. In recent scientific literature, both in Europe and 
in this country, the term has been used promiscuously. 
But, as Mr. Fuller states, "the predominant scientific 
usage of the term is for all wells in which the water rises 
above the surface, in other words, for those wells exhibit- 
ing the hydrostatic or artesian principle. In popular 
practice it is applied, in addition to the use previously 



104 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

mentioned, to deep wells in general, especially those in 
rock, and to a certain extent to any drilled wells yielding 
water of good sanitary quality." 

Mr. Fuller discusses in his paper the arguments for 
these various uses, and then gives the following defini- 
tions, agreed upon by the Division of Hydrology of the 
Geological Survey: 

" Artesian Principle. 

The artesian principle, which may be considered as 
identical with what is often known as the hydrostatic 
principle, is defined as the principle in virtue of which 
water, confined in the materials of the earth's crust, tends 
to rise to the level of the water surface at the highest 
point from which pressure is transmitted. Gas as an 
agent in causing the water to rise is expressly excluded 
from the definition. 

^^ Artesian Pressure. 

The pressure exhibited by water confined in the earth's 
crust at a level lower than its static head. 

^^ Artesian Water. 

That portion of the underground water which is under 
Artesian pressure and will rise if encountered by a well or 
other passage affording an outlet. 

" Artesian Basin. 

A basin of porous bedded rock in which, as a result 
of the synclinical structure, the water is confined under 
Artesian pressure. 

" Artesian Slope. 

A monoclinical slope of bedded rocks, in which water is 
confined beneath relatively impervious covers, owing to 
the obstruction to its downward passage by the pinching 
out of the porous beds, by their change from a pervious 
to an impervious character, by internal friction, or by 
dikes or other obstructions. 



COUNTRY HOUSES IO5 

^^ Artesian Area. 

An artesian area is an area underlain by water under 

artesian pressure. 
^^ Artesian Well. 

An artesian well is any well in which the water rises under 

artesian pressure when encountered." 

" Blowing Wells. — A curious phenomenon is sometimes 
witnessed in the so-called ' blowing ' or ' breathing ' of wells. 
Hydrologists of the United States Geological Sur\^ey have in 
recent years observ^ed that many wells emit currents of air 
with more or less force and sometimes accompanied by a 
whistling sound. 

" Examples of this type of well were found in the State of 
Nebraska and in Southern Louisiana. 

" It is explained that this blowing of air from wells is chiefly 
due to changes in atmospheric pressure or else to temperature 
changes. While the barometer stands low, air is expelled 
from the wells, and with a rising barometer the blow^ing 
becomes less and less until the current is finally reversed. 
Differences in the temperature of the surface air and the air in 
the soil produce similar effects." 

" Wells with Two Kinds of Water. — Another curious phe- 
nomenon is observed in a flowing well at Logansport, Indiana, 
from which both fresh and sulphur waters are obtained. This 
well, located in Riverside Park, was drilled in 1905. An 
8-inch pipe was sunk to a depth of 80 feet, and inside of it a 
5-inch casing was placed. Fresh water from a limestone bed 
comes up between the two pipes, w^hile water having a strong 
•taste and odor of hydrogen sulphide comes up through the 
5-inch pipe from a lower stratum in the limestone. The sul- 
phur water flows with a volume of about one gallon per minute 
while the fresh water flows in a somewhat smaller quantity. 
The only other well of this kind known is said to be situated 
about 15 miles north of Cincinnati, Ohio, but this well is non- 
flowing." 

" Freezing of Wells. — A further curious phenomenon, which 
causes much trouble in districts of the Northern States in 



I06 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

which air temperatures frequently go considerably below zero, 
is the ' freezing ' of wells, so much so that difl&culty is often 
experienced in keeping the wells open for use during the winter. 
The shallow open wells give less trouble than the deeper, 
drilled or double-tubed driven wells, in which the inner or 
pump tube is carried below the outer casing. Wells in the 
State of Maine, which are in granite, slate, or other compact 
and close-grained rocks, do not exhibit the phenomenon of 
deep freezing. But In Minnesota, North Dakota and Nebraska, 
wells which penetrate porous deposits or cavernous limestones 
having openings or passages through which the air can cir- 
culate, freeze every winter. The trouble occurs occasionally 
in wells in Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky, 
and Indiana. 

" Deep wells which freeze sometimes exhibit the phenomenon 
of indraft and outdraft of air, called the ' blowing ' mentioned 
heretofore, and also show fluctuations of water level, or in 
flowing wells, changes in the discharge. 

" The reason for the peculiar behavior of these wells is 
assigned by geologists to barometric changes. Freezing, 
indraft, low water level, small discharge and yield of clear water 
occur during clear weather and a high barometer, whereas a 
low barometer is accompanied by a thawing of the well, a 
stronger yield and the occurrence of a discoloration of the water. 
The direct cause of the freezing is an indraft of cold air when 
the barometer stands high. 

" To prevent the freezing of wells the following precautions 
should be observed : — 

"In open wells, where air obtains access through the soil 
and at the junction of curb and cover, a cement cover should 
be fitted tightly to the curb, and the curb itself should be 
coated with cement for some distance below the surface. 

"In drilled or double-tubed wells the current of cold air 
drawn in at periods of high barometer between the outer and 
inner casings near the surface and passing out in a porous bed 
at the bottom above the water level will cause freezing if the 
water is pumped so that it stands in the inner tube above the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 10/ 

lower end of the outer casing, and a long-continued current of 
such cold air may cause freezing of the ground water about and 
in the well tube. For this condition it is suggested that the 
space between the outer and inner tube near the surface be 
packed with some impervious material. A filling of cement 
resting on an improvised plug is probably the most effective. 
The home-made rag packing some times used is too porous to 
serve the purpose. 

^'The same treatment is suggested for wells with leaky 
casings, for driven wells passing through rocks porous enough 
to permit the passage of large currents of chilled air during 
periods of high barometer, and for wells in which the outer 
casing ends in some cavern or open passage; that is, the space 
between the well tube and the pump tube near the surface 
should be tightly plugged w-ith impervious material. About 
some wells the ground crevices through which the air circu- 
lates are so numerous that immunity from freezing can be 
obtained only by plugging the space about the pump tube from 
top to bottom with cement." * 

Specifications for Wells. — It frequently happens that 
owners of country houses, having decided upon a w-ell 
supply, obtain estimates for such a v^ell from well drivers. 
The following specifications for driven, bored or drilled 
wells should be consulted before letting a well contract, 
and might with advantage be made a part of the 
same. 

Inspection of Site. The contractor is to inspect the site 
for the proposed well, to note all the conditions of the problem, 
and to take into consideration all the necessary arrange- 
ments with regard to w^orking space, headroom, transporta- 
tion of his machinery, storage of same, and the provision of 
the necessary water, steam and fuel supplies. 

Execution of the Work. The contractor to whom this 
work is awarded must begin operations ten days from date of 
awarding of contract. 



I08 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

He shall prosecute the work as rapidly as possible con- 
sistent with a first-class job, and without any unnecessary 
delay until the same is completed and accepted by the engineer. 

He shall place the work in immediate charge of a compe- 
tent and skilled foreman, who shall remain on the work until 
its completion except he be discharged for cause. The con- 
tractor shall also give the work his immediate personal atten- 
tion, verify the records kept by the foreman, and note any 
unusual conditions which may be met with. 

Preparations for the Work. The contractor shall 
make all his preparations for the well driving or boring imme- 
diately after the contract has been awarded to him. He shall 
ship his well machinery, all required tools, appliances and 
implements as soon as possible, so that he may begin work on 
time, and he shall also provide the required fuel for his boiler, 
also the water supply. 

Tools, Machinery, Implements and Appliances. The 
contractor shall, at his expense, furnish and dehver to the site 
all tools, machinery, etc., required in the construction of the 
well boring, also all necessary planking, blocking, tackle, and 
the like. 

He shall bear the expense of all transportation connected 
with the delivery. 

Fuel and Water. It shall be understood that the con- 
tractor shall provide and furnish his own fuel, coal, wood or 
oil. Likewise shall he provide his own water for boiler or 
other purposes. 

Location of Well. The well is to be located where indi- 
cated on plan or at site selected by the engineer, and boring or 
drilling operations must be started directly over the selected 
spot. 

Diameter of Well. The well shall be begun with a 
diameter of .... inches, inside measurement, and shall be 
continued this diameter to a depth of .... feet from the 
surface. 

It shall be sunk, driven, drilled or bored truly straight, 
vertical and round. 



COUNTRY HOUSES IO9 

Unless the bored or driven well passes through rock strata, 
it shall be understood that the contractor shall provide a well 
tubing, of .... inches inside diameter. 

Where the drilling or boring is through rock strata, the 
directions of the engineer regarding providing or omitting 
tubing shall be followed by the contractor. 

Depth of Well. The depth of the well shall be decided 
by the engineer after conference with the contractor. The 
contractor shall stop work at any point or depth designated or 
determined by the engineer. 

Decision as to Method of Constructing Well. The 
method to be pursued by the contractor in constructing the 
well shall be determined by the engineer in charge, after con- 
ference with the contractor. In no case shall driving, drilling 
or boring appliances be used which, in the opinion of the 
engineer, are unsuitable for the work, or which are likely, if 
used, to diminish the sources of water, or which would inter- 
fere with, or prevent, the well tubing from being so fixed as 
to permanently exclude foreign matter or surface water, or 
undesirable courses of water at a lower depth. 

Well Pit. If the well is to be started in a well pit, it shall 
be constructed as per drawings, with brick or stone walls, of 
. . . .feet depth, and .... feet in diameter. The sides of the 
pit shall be finished inside with a coating of pure Portland 
cement, and the brick or stone walls shall rest on a concrete 
foundation. From the bottom of this pit the bore for the 
well shall be started in the manner directed. 

Well Tubing. The well tubing shall consist of standard 
galvanized wrought iron pipe. The diameter of the tubing 
shall be .... inches. All the joints of the tubing shall be 
screw joints tightly put together. 

Where two concentric tubes are to be used, the internal 
diameter of the inner tube shall be not less than .... inches, 
and that of the outer tube not less than .... inches diameter. 

The contractor shall determine the quantity of tubing 
required to comply with the requirements of this specification, 
and he shall provide the tube in ample quantities to enable 



no THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

the construction of the well to proceed continuously and with- 
out any hindrance. No allowance shall be made for any 
tubing except that actually inserted into the well. 

If requested to do so, the contractor shall prove to the 
engineer's satisfaction that all foreign matter or water veins 
encountered during driving of the well have been efficiently 
and permanently excluded from the well. 

Record of Progress. The contractor shall keep an 
accurate record of the weekly progress of the work. In it 
he shall describe the geologic strata through which he passes, 
the depth reached, and the amount of water furnished by the 
well, if any. 

He shall furnish the engineer with a copy of the record, and 
also with samples of the various strata, which he shall label 
and name, and he shall also prepare a colored section showing 
each stratum, with its depth and the position of the well tubing. 

Form of Well Record. The following form of well 
record is suggested: 

The well is located .... miles in a direction 

from the railroad station at in the town of 

, county of Owner's name 

Contractor's name Engineer Date 

when well driving was begun, Date when well 

driving was completed, What kind of rig was 

used ? (cable, jet or ). Diameter of well 

at surface or at top of well pit ... . inches, reduced to .... at a 

depth of ... . feet from surface. Total depth of well 

Length of tubing or casing inserted Main water 

supply struck at a depth of .... feet. Well pumps .... gal- 
lons (U. S.) per minute from depth of .... feet. Well flows 
.... gallons (U. S.) per minute. If flowing well, what is the 

hydrostatic pressure? Recorded by 

Address 

Testing the Well. Whenever directed by the engineer, 
the contractor shall arrange for making a pumping test of 
the well to ascertain the yield of water of the well at any 
depth. 



COUNTRY HOUSES III 

The contractor shall state in his estimate the cost for each 
trial test. He shall furnish the required pipes and fittings, 
and the test pump, and make all connections required for such 
test. 

The test pump shall be not less than 4 inches in diameter 
inside, with a 24-inch stroke, and pump rods, fittings, coup- 
lings, etc., shall be of ample strength for raising the water 
from any required depth to a point not less than 4 feet above 
the level of ground at well. He shall also provide at least 
two 50-gallon barrels for measuring purposes, also the neces- 
sary discharge pipe and hose to carry the water from the 
pump to the barrels. He shall arrange for the alternate 
filling of the barrels. 

If so required by the terms of the contract agreement the 
contractor shall make at least two tests of the well at his own 
cost. 

The contractor shall provide for the tests a steam or other 
engine of not less than 8 horsepower, together w^ith all neces- 
sary accessories. He shall provide the required steam or fuel 
for running the engine. 

If the test should indicate that the desired amount of water 
cannot be obtained from the depth of well when test is applied, 
the contractor shall continue the boring when directed to do 
so by the engineer. Any additional work done before the 
receipt of such instructions from the engineer is at the con- 
tractor's own risk. 

Repetition of Test. After the well has reached a certain 
depth, to be stated in the contract agreement, the contractor 
shall make tests of the well at each additional 25 feet in depth 
of well. 

Duration of Tests. Each test of the well shall be con- 
tinued by the contractor for a period of not less than 10 hours 
unless contrary instructions are issued by the engineer. 

All tests shall be made in the presence of the engineer or his 
representative. 

The final test of the well shall be continuous for a period of 
24 hours (night and day). 



112 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Amount of Water Expected. The supply of water 
required (in any case not less than .... U, S. gallons per 
hour) is the greatest quantity the well is capable of yield- 
ing when pumped from a depth of not less than .... 
feet with a stroke of .... inches, running .... strokes per 
minute, and delivered into barrels placed .... feet above 
the surface of the well bore and .... feet horizontal distance 
from it. 

Failure of Test. The indicated horsepower or brake 
horsepower of the engine driving the pump, and the cost of 
the consumption of steam or fuel per looo U. S. gallons raised 
from the well, when pumping the maximum quantity of water, 
shall be clearly stated by the contractor. 

In the event of the pumping plant proving incapable of 
producing the results required, or upon the failure to main- 
tain the guaranteed efficiency and cost of working, the engineer 
shall have the right to order the removal of the pump without 
compensation to the contractor. 

Loss OF Well-Driving Tools. Should any well-boring 
tools or any part of the machinery be broken, lost or injured 
during the driving of the well, necessitating the abandoning of 
the well, the contractor shall begin anew another boring, and 
he shall not be entitled to any compensation for the driving 
of the abandoned well. The contractor shall continue a new 
well at his own expense until he can turn over to the owner a 
well conforming to the requirements of the specifications and 
the contract. 

Torpedoing the Well. The contractor shall not "tor- 
pedo" the well boring without consultation with the engineer, 
nor without his written consent to do so. 

Removal of Debris. Upon the completion of his contract, 
the contractor shall remove all debris and material resulting 
from the well driving operations. 

Removal of Well Machinery. When directed by the 
engineer to do so, the contractor shall remove from the owner's 
premises all well-driving machinery and well tools, and he shall 
effect all removal at his own expense. 



COUNTRY HOUSES ,^II3 

Completed Well. On completion, the top of the well 
shall be provided with coupling or socket and with plug, and 
both shall be fastened together with Yale padlock in such a 
way that the well cannot be tampered with. 

The keys for the padlock shall be turned over to the engineer 
before final certificate of payment can be issued. 

Time for Completion. The contractor shall be bound 
under his contract to complete the wxll to a depth of 

feet within the period of ... . working days. Should 

a greater depth be required, an extension of time, 
amounting to .... days for ... . feet depth of well shall 
be granted. 

Payments. The contractor shall be entitled to a payment 
of ... . per cent of the cost of the work so far done after the 
completion of each test. The payment shall be certified by 
the engineer. 

The balance of cost shall be due to the contractor within .... 
days after completion and acceptance of the well. 

Damages. The contractor shall exert the usual and ordi- 
nary care not to cause damage to the owner's premises during 
his operations. For any damage done he shall be held 
responsible. 

The contractor shall assume all risk of fire, explosion or 
other accident or damage to his machinery. 

The contractor shall be held personally responsible for any 
accidents to persons, or damage to property, arising during 
and from his operations. 

The contractor shall replace at his own expense any tools 
which may have become lost. 

Estimates. Bids for this work must be based upon a 
personal inspection of the locality, and shall state the price 
per foot in depth of the well. Where the well is of varying 
diameter, the price for each pipe diameter shall be clearly 
stated. 

Where the well is to start from a well pit, the depth of well 
is to be understood as measured from the bottom of the pit, 
and not from the surface. 



114 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Water Finders. — Before digging or boring a well for 
water supply, it is often advisable to consult an expert 
hydro-geologist, or to refer to the numerous published 
reports of the United States Geological Survey. 

Formerly it used to be customary to employ " water 
finders " or so-called " water witches " to haye them 
designate the best spot for obtaining water. From an 
article on "Water Supply for Country Houses," con- 
tributed to a leading magazine by the writer, I quote 
the following: 

" Water finders, being usually shrewd observers, locate by 
the aid of a hazel twig the exact spot where water maybe found. 
The superstitious faith in the power of the forked twig or 
branch from the hazelnut bush to indicate by its twisting or 
turning the presence of underground water was at one time wide 
spread, but only the very slightest foundation of fact exists 
for the belief in such supernatural powers. 

"In Europe, attention has again, during the past years, 
been called to this ^ method ' of finding water, and it has even 
received the indorsement of a very high German authority in 
hydraulic engineering, a man well up in years, with a very 
wide practical experience, and an author of the most up-to-date 
handbook on water supply, but men of science have not failed 
to contradict his statements." (See footnote, page ii6.) 

In this connection the following article on " The Use 
of the Divining Rod," taken from a bulletin of the 
United States Geological Survey, is of interest. 

"Numerous devices are used throughout this country for 
detecting the presence of underground water — devices rang- 
ing in complexity from the forked branch of witch hazel, peach, 
or other wood, to more or less elaborate mechanical or electrical 
contrivances. Many of the operators of these devices, espe- 
cially those that use the home-cut forked branch, are perfectly 



COUNTRY HOUSES Il5 

honest in the belief that the working of the rod is influenced 
by agencies — usually regarded as electric currents following 
underground streams of water — that are entirely independent 
of their own bodies, and many uneducated people have implicit 
faith in their ability to locate underground water. 

" In experiments with a rod of this type, one of the geologists 
of the United States Geological Survey found that at points it 
turned downward independently of his will, but more complete 
tests showed that the downturning resulted from slight and 
— until watched for — unconscious changes in the inclination 
of his body, the effects of which were communicated through 
the arms and wrists to the rod. No movement of the rod from 
causes outside the body could be detected, and it soon became 
obvious that the view held by other men of science is correct — 
that the operation of the "divining rod " is generally due to 
unconscious movements of the body or of the muscles of the 
hand. The experiments made show that these movements 
happen most frequently at places where the operator's expe- 
rience has led him to believe that water may be found. The 
uselessness of the divining rod is indicated by the facts that 
the rod may be worked at will by the operator, that he fails to 
detect strong currents of water running in tunnels oi other 
channels that afford no surface indications of water, and that 
his locations in limestone regions where water flows in well- 
defined channels are rarely more successful than those depend- 
ent on mere guesses. In fact, its operators are successful only 
in those regions in which ground water occurs in a definite 
sheet in porous material or in more or less clayey deposits, 
such as the pebbly clay or till in which, although a few failures 
occur, wells would get water anywhere. 

'' Ground water occurs under certain definite conditions, and 
as in humid regions a stream may be predicted wherever a 
valley is known, so one familiar with rocks and ground-water 
conditions may predict places where ground water can be 
found. No appliance, either mechanical or electrical, has yet 
been successfully used for detecting water in places where plain 
common sense or mere guessing would not have shown its 



ii6 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



presence just as well. The only advantage of employing a 
"water witch," as the operator of the divining rod is sometimes 
called, is that skilled services are obtained, most men so em- 
ployed being keener and better observers of the occurrence and 
movements of ground water than the average person." * 

Collecting Galleries. — Another method of utilizing the 
subterranean water is to have a horizontal collecting 
gallery, built either of glazed earthen pipes of large size, 




flfl£«H^VCl. 






Fig. 9. — Collecting Galleries or Conduits for Underground 

Water. 



and provided on their circumference with numerous slots, 
or consisting of a brick conduit with numerous openings 
at the sides (Fig. 9), the bottom of the gallery being located 

* See S. T. Child, Water Finding and the Divining Rod, Ipswich, 
1902. 

See also the following recent German pamphlets: — 
Georg Franzius, die Wiinschelrute, Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 
Sept. 13, 1905. Georg Franzius, Meine Beobachtungen mit der Wiins- 
chelrute, Berlin, 1907. Dr. L. Weber, Die Wiinschelrute, Kiel, 1905. 

Fr. Koenig, Ernstes und Heiteres aus dem Zauberreich der Wiinschel- 
rute, Leipzig, 1907. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 11/ 

at the level of the impermeable stratum. Such a conduit 
for underground water should terminate in a brick well, 
from which the water is pumped, while any sand or gravel 
carried in the water is deposited at the bottom of the 
chamber. 

Recent experience has shown that it is necessary, in 
the storage of underground waters, to keep away the light, 
as otherwise there is apt to be trouble from vegetable 
growths, which at certain seasons impart to the water a 
bad odor, a disagreeable taste, or both. 

Rain Water and Cisterns. — In the country, rain water, 
as it falls from the clouds, is apt to be much purer than 
near large towns, although it always collects some impu- 
rities in its downward path. It may be collected for use, 
provided the water delivered during the first part of a 
storm, which is apt to be quite impure, is intercepted and 
run to waste. Proper precautions should therefore be 
taken to let the first washings from the roofs run away. 
If this is done, rain water may be considered, in the ab- 
sence of springs or where a shallow well supply is pol- 
luted, a suitable but limited supply in the case of smaller 
houses or farm buildings. So-called self-acting rain-water 
separators may be arranged on the outside conductor 
pipes of the house, and in this way a pure supply can be 
secured, even with large buildings or institutions. In 
the case of the latter it is often a good practice to make 
use of the soft rain water for laundry and for boiler feed 
purposes. 

Rain water is stored either in rain water tanks placed in 
the attic of houses, or else in underground brick or stone 
reservoirs, called cisterns. The underground tanks are 
preferable because they keep the water cooler and prevent 



Ii8 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



vegetable growth, since the light is excluded. The cisterns 
should be built water tight to prevent leakage and contami- 
nation from a polluted soil. In determining the sizes of 
cisterns, the annual mean rainfall of the locality should be 
looked up from the meteorological records. After making 
due allowance for evaporation, the water supply available 
for storage may be calculated. 

Instead of merely utilizing the limited roof areas, por- 
tions of the surface of the ground may be used if carefully 
prepared as ''catchment areas " with concrete and cement. 
In the Bermuda Islands, for instance, the water supply of 
the towns and parishes is obtained from the rainfall exclu- 
sively, the porosity of the coral rock, which is the geologic 
formation of the islands, causing the rain to percolate so 
quickly as to render the use of wells impossible. Visitors 
to these islands have been struck with the fact that no 
matter how heavily it rains, the roads dry up entirely in a 
few hours, owing to the peculiar geologic formation. 
Neither subterranean waters nor springs being available, 
the houses are provided with an underground cemented 
storage tank, which is connected either with roofs finished 
with thin slabs or slates of the coral rock, or else the tanks 
are connected with so-called surface catchment areas, 
which are specially prepared water-gathering surfaces to 
which a good slope is given. These are sometimes quite 
extensive and are always enclosed with a railing to keep 
off the cattle. Underneath the artificially prepared area, 
and at the lowest point of the slope, an underground tank 
for the storage of water is built. The water supply of the 
entire islands is obtained in this way, and great care is 
exercised to keep the roofs and the catchment areas pure, 
clean and whitewashed. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



19 



Brooks and Streams. — Another source of water supply 
may be found in brooks or running streams. The taking 
of water from open streams is limited by legal restrictions, 




Fig. 10. — A Brook Flowing Through Manured Fields. 

much more so than is the case with subterranean waters. 
A knowledge of the "law of water" will prove useful to 
the engineer undertaking works of water supply in the 



120 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



country, and it must be carefully considered before any 
works are planned or undertaken. These legal restrictions 
will be briefly taken up further on. 
In considering open water courses, whether brooks or 




Copyrighted by Detroit Photographic Co, 

Fig. II. — Upland Brook as a Source of Water Supply. 

rivers, as sources of supply, it should be remembered that 
even in the country such streams are, in many cases, in 
danger of pollution by the surface washings from manured 
fields (Fig. lo). In the case of the smaller streams, the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 121 

water is often found to be quite impure and unfit where 
settlements of houses, hamlets or villages are located above 
the proposed intake. This tendency to contamination in- 
creases with the growth of population along the banks. 
The water should therefore be improved by providing a 
filtering gallery between the stream and the suction well 
or reservoir, or else it should be passed through artificial 
sand filters. River water, unless properly filtered, is also 
objectionable as a source of water supply, because during 
floods it is apt to be not only quite turbid but also polluted 
with organic matters drained into the river from the 
surrounding cultivated farms. 

Streams flowing through uninhabited and uncultivated 
upland regions and those from mountainous districts 
(Fig. II ) usually furnish a pure supply, but the smaller 
brooks are very liable to have a very changeable rate of 
flow, being mountain torrents immediately after heavy 
rainstorms and drying up almost or entirely in hot summer 
weather. For such reasons they are to be avoided as a 
permanent source of supply except where it is contemplated 
to store up a part of the flow in an artificial reservoir. 

Lakes. — The water from many lakes is clear, bright, 
and potable, and may be used as a supply, provided there 
are no setdements along the shores which may cause 
pollution of the water. In mountainous, uninhabited 
regions lakes furnish very pure water and are, moreover, 
usually at an elevation permitting a gravity supply. As a 
rule, the larger and deeper the lake, the greater the likeli- 
hood of obtaining a pure supply, for all lakes act as settling 
basins for the sediment brought into them by the streams 
tributary to the lake, and their water then becomes 
purified by "quiescence." 



122 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 




m 
w 

H 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 23 

The smaller lakes, as for instance those located in the 
mountains in sparsely inhabited regions (Fig. 12), generally 
form an exceptionally pure supply and may be kept fit for 
use, provided a stringent sanitary supervision is exercised. 

The water of lakes on the shores of which summer hotels, 
cottages, or camps are located, should be protected from 
pollution by the enactment of State laws, forbidding 
absolutely the common practice of depositing on the 
shores or in the water domestic sewage, garbage, liquid 
and solid excreta and wastes of any kind. This matter 
will be referred to again in the chapter on Sewage 
Disposal. 

Impounded Surface Water. — Water from surface 
streams may be utilized by collecting it in an artificial 
storage reservoir, built in the watershed. Such impound- 
ing reservoirs, which usually permit the use of a gravity 
supply, are to be found in some mountain regions, where 
the land may be acquired cheaply and where a short dam 
may be constructed across a narrow part of the valley of 
the stream at its lower end. It is, of course, necessary 
that there be no settlements or manured fields on the 
drainage area forming the watershed of the stream. 

If there are habitations near the watershed, its sanitary 
condition requires close watching, and even the temporary 
summer camps, or laborers' temporary huts or shacks, 
or the use of a part of the area for picnic purposes, should 
not be tolerated. In making such an artificial storage 
reservoir for surface water, the brushwood, vegetable 
matter, and the peaty soil sometimes forming its bottom, 
should be carefully removed. 

In the case of a water supply from a "dammed-up" 
watershed, strict regulations may be necessary to guard 



124 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

against its pollution. This method of obtaining a supply 
is not often employed in the case of country houses. 

Legal Considerations. — Enough has been said in the 
foregoing to show that the problem of finding a safe and 
sufficient source of water supply is often beset with diffi- 
culties from the engineering point of view. 

In many water supply problems, and in particular in 
the selection of an available source of supply, engineering 
questions are not the only ones to be dealt with, for legal 
considerations, which must be thoroughly understood and 
respected, may govern or affect the problem. 

The laws on the subject seem to vary in different coun- 
tries. There appears to be a sharp legal distinction 
between waters flowing over the surface without a clearly 
marked channel, those which flow in an open natural 
water course, and underground waters. Briefly stated, 
the water flowing in an open stream is not the exclusive 
property of anyone. Its use, subject to certain restric- 
tions, is given by law not only to the owner over or through 
whose land the water flows, but to every one having a 
right of access to it. In other words, all owners of land 
abutting on a stream enjoy certain privileges of this stream, 
which are known as the ''riparian rights." Thus, every 
one of the riparian owners of a stream has a right to the 
ordinary use of the water flowing along his premises. He 
may use the water from the stream for the domestic sup- 
ply of his house and also for his cattle and horses, and in 
this way he may diminish its volume of flow to some extent. 

He has the right to extraordinary uses of the water, such 
as for water power, irrigation or manufacturing purposes, 
only provided that by such use he does not change its 
character, or diminish its flow, or make it less useful to 



COUNTRY HOUSES 125 

the other owners, and in this way encroach upon the legal 
rights of his neighbors above and below stream. He can- 
not, for instance, intercept the regular flow of water in 
the stream for the purpose of a water supply of a settle- 
ment of summer cottages to such an extent as to inter- 
fere thereby with the rightful uses of the same water by 
the other riparian owners. 

Again, he must not discharge domestic or manufactur- 
ing sewage into the stream and thus render the water 
impure or polluted. Those living further downstream 
must not, by his acts, be robbed of the ordinary use of the 
water, which they as well as he require for water supply 
in the home, for the farm, etc. The rights conceded to 
them by law can be interfered w^ith only where there is a 
mutual understanding, or where a legally sufficient com- 
pensation is given. 

On the other hand, in the case of underground w^ater, 
no such rights of neighbors are entertained by law, hence 
anyone may dig or drive on his own property a well of 
any depth, to tap the underground sheet of w^ater, irre- 
spective of the fact that by doing so he lowers the water 
in the well or in the spring of his neighbors. An excep- 
tion to this rule is made by law only in the case of sub- 
surface water which flows "in a defined channel." 

Unless surface waters constitute by law a stream with 
well-defined channel confined between tw^o banks, they 
are not subject to any legal restrictions.* 

* See Appleton's Universal Cyclopaedia, Articles on Riparian Rights, 
Water Courses, Filum Aquae, Lakes, Seashore, Law of Rivers. See also 
E. B. Goodell, Review of Laws Forbidding Pollution of Inland Waters in 
the United States, published by the United States Geological Survey, 
1904, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 103. 

See also D. W. Johnson, Relation of the Law to Underground Waters, 
published by the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, Water Supply Paper No. 122. 



126 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

From the foregoing it will be seen how necessary it is, 
in the case of country water supplies, for the engineer and 
the owner to become thoroughly acquainted with the legal 
aspects of the case. In the plans for water supply for 
country settlements, it will often be found advisable or 
necessary to arrange suitable terms with the owners of the 
land on which a spring is situated, and in other cases with 
the riparian owners of a stream, from which it is proposed 
to take a water supply. 

Rights of Way and Easements. — In the case of gravity 
supplies, it sometimes becomes necessary to run conduit 
pipes across land belonging to other owners, and this 
cannot be done unless an easement is first obtained, which 
gives to one person the privileges of right of way and 
also the right of entry for necessary repairs. The person 
who obtains the easement acquires thereby also certain 
rights against the neighbor, for instance the right that he 
can enjoin him from building houses or planting trees over 
the line of easement. It would, therefore, seem necessary 
that a proper compensation should be given for the rights 
acquired by the easement. 

Gravity and Pumping Supply. — The sources of supply 
considered in the foregoing may be located either above 
or below the building to be supplied. If located at an 
elevation above the building, suitable and sufficient to 
give a good flow without having recourse to pumping, a 
gravity supply can be arranged for if surface water, springs, 
lakes, or brooks form the source of supply. Inasmuch 
as the gravity system requires no running expenses once 
the supply conduit has been constructed, it is in many 
cases given the preference over a pumping system. A 
supply from a well or from a rain-water cistern generally 



COUNTRY HOUSES 12/ 

implies pumping of the water. The distance between the 
source of supply and the building has, of course, an 
important bearing upon the question of first cost. As a 
rule it is best not to exceed a certain distance in length of 
gravity conduit, but rather to select a nearer source and 
install a pumping plant. 

Quality of Water. — Where only a single source .of 
supply is available, it is necessary to carefully determine 
the quality of the water, because this may require special 
means for its purification, and in case it is a very hard 
water, special methods and appliances for softening the 
water. All water containing even a small amount of 
organic matter of animal origin must be considered 
*' suspicious," and a large amount of organic substances 
present should lead to its being condemned as 'dangerous." 

Water Analyses. — When several sources of supply are 
available, the selection is sometimes made after obtaining 
a comparison of the physical and sanitary qualities of the 
water sources. It is necessary, in all investigations of 
this character, to examine not only the physical characteris- 
tics of the water, such as taste, color, odor, temperature, 
turbidity and hardness, but also to subject a sample, or 
preferably several samples, of the water both to chemical 
and bacteriological analyses, in order to test its suitability 
from a sanitary point of view. Modern knowledge on the 
subject of water supply requires that the results of the 
difiFerent analyses should be taken together, and much 
more stress than formerly is laid upon the number and 
kind of living organisms, or bacteria, found in the drinking 
water. 

Sanitary Inspection of Source of Supply. — In addition to 
the tests mentioned, a sanitary inspection of the source 



128 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

of supply, of the watershed, of the river basin and its 
tributaries, or of the lake and its water sources, should be 
made. In the case of running streams it is considered 
insufficient merely to take a sample of water at the place 
where it is intended to locate the suction inlet to the pumps. 
It is very much better to take additional samples above 
such point, and incidentally to determine, by an inspection, 
the character of the country through which the stream 
runs. It will be found, in many cases, that the water 
course is made use of, by settlements located upstream, as 
a convenient outfall into which their sewers or drains 
empty. One must, therefore, always ascertain not only 
the present purity of the supply, but likewise its safety 
from future pollution. 

Quantity. — A source of supply may be ever so favorable 
as regards its quality, yet if the quantity available falls 
short of the volume required, it may become necessary to 
discard it and to look for other sources. In the case of 
small springs, the quantity yielded can usually be readily 
measured, and small brooks or water courses can be gauged 
by means of weirs. For large and important buildings, 
it h necessary, when a supply from wells is desired, to 
drive test wells and to ascertain the supply by means of 
pumping. In this way the quantity available is readily 
determined, and the next step is to compare this with the 
quantity actually required. 

Amount of Water Used. — Right here it is well for the 
engineer to remember that the allowance in the case of 
country mansions must be generous and ample, for in the 
buildings and on the grounds of large country estates 
water is apt to be used very lavishly. A fair allowance, 
so far as the house itself is concerned, for water used in 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 29 

drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, ablutions and flush- 
ing closets would be 50 United States gallons per head per 
day. But the number of persons who may occupy the 
building, or the prospective population of an institution, 
often have to be guessed at in making an estimate; this at 
once introduces a factor of uncertainty. While in cities 
the average daily consumption reaches nearly 100 gallons 
or even more, of which a large quantity is really wasted, 
I find that American public institutions, forming a group 
of detached buildings in the country, sometimes use 
enormous quantities, such as 200 gallons and over per 
capita. It is true that a part of this consumption is 
intentional waste, caused 'by leaving faucets open to 
prevent the freezing of poorly located plumbing, and by a 
too abundant use of water in the flushing of fixtures or in 
bathing. The other part is doubtless due to carelessness 
in not keeping the water fittings of houses, the faucets, 
ball cocks and cistern valves, in proper repair. 

In the case of large country mansions or estates, we must 
add to the inside or domestic consumption the large 
volumes of water required for stable use, for the watering 
of horses and cattle, for the washing of carriages and 
harness, for the cow barns, the dairy, etc. The allowance 
for these items alone sometimes amounts to from 50 to 
200 gallons per day for each horse and carriage. A further 
large amount must be provided for the watering of the 
roads, for the sprinkling of the lawns and flower beds, for 
orchard and vegetable gardens, and for the use in the 
conservatory, which amount rarely falls short of 1000 and 
even 2000 gallons per day. Sometimes an average of 
500 gallons per acre of ground is allowed. Where orna- 
mental fountains are provided in gardens, these also 



130 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

consume a large supply, varying, according to size and 
number of fountain jets, from 50 gallons to several thousand 
gallons per hour. 

Finally, it is necessary to provide, in the storage of 
water, a large volume to be drawn upon in the case of an 
outbreak of fire. The danger of a conflagration is, of 
course, ever present, and it becomes serious in proportion 
to the remoteness of the buildings from the nearest village 
or town fire department. 

Water Pressure. — The volume of supply for which 
provision must be made should be available at the build- 
ings and on the grounds under a suitable, i.e. sufficient 
pressure. This brings up the engineering question: what 
is a suitable pressure of water to be provided? In order 
to answer this question intelligently, it is necessary to 
discriminate between domestic-service and fire-service 
pressure. Domestic pressure means the pressure required 
to cause the water to flow at the highest faucet in a house 
under a moderate but still sufficient flow; or, where there 
is an attic tank, the pressure which will constantly keep 
the tank supplied. Fire-service pressure, however, means 
a much higher pressure, for in order to be satisfactory and 
effective, fire streams should be able to reach above the 
roof of a house with some force. 

In view of the usual height of buildings in the country, 
it is considered by engineers that the pressure of water 
sufficient for fire-extinguishing purposes should be from 
40 to 50 pounds per square inch at a hydrant in the base- 
ment. In the case of large hotel buildings, the minimum 
requirements of fire underwriters are somewhat higher, 
namely 60 pounds in the basement or the ground floor. 
In some cases, such a pressure is furnished by gravity 



COUNTRY HOUSES I3I 

supplies (see example No. II); in other instances, even 
where a gravity supply exists, the water must be pumped 
to give a sufhcient head or pressure. The latter is usu- 
ally attained by providing large tanks, elevated on towers 
built of sufficient height. It should be remembered also 
that, w^here small fire hose is used, the friction in long 
lines of hose is very large, absorbing much of the avail- 
able pressure, and thereby reducing the height of the fire 
stream to a considerable extent. 

The cases are exceptional where a natural or gravity 
pressure is too heavy and where in consequence, in order 
to avoid the excessive straining of the house pipes and 
fittings, the pressure has to be reduced. This is accom- 
plished by the use of pressure regulators or pressure- 
reducing valves. It may be said, however, that the 
use of these is not to be recommended, except where 
they are absolutely necessary, for even the best of 
these valves cause occasional trouble by getting out of 
order. 

Supply System. — Having determined the source, the 
quality and the quantity of water, and the desired pressure 
at the building in the manner outlined above, the engineer 
is enabled to decide upon and lay out a supply system, 
which in the special case under consideration should be 
looked upon with greatest favor, as being the best, most 
sanitary and most economical, both in first cost and in 
cost of maintenance. In general, it may be stated that a 
gravity supply always seems to be the most desirable; 
it is sometimes, though not always, the cheapest in re- 
gard to maintenance and running expenses. A pumping 
system requires either manual labor or skilled attendance 
for the pumping machinery and is, besides, liable to give 



132 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

trouble on account of the breaking down or the wear and 
tear of the latter. 

A gravity system may be installed with or without 
storage tanks, but it is considered preferable to provide the 
latter. A pumping system requires the use of reservoirs, 
located on suitably high elevations. Where these are not 
available, elevated tanks or standpipes are used to secure 
the required storage and pressure. Sometimes under- 
ground pressure tanks are substituted for reservoirs oi 
elevated tanks, and in a few cases pumps are arranged to 
discharge directly into the supply mains to the buildings, 
and are then provided with relief valves, opening up when 
the pressure becomes excessive. The latter modification 
does not provide any storage for domestic and fire pur- 
poses, and hence requires the pumping plant to be laid out 
in duplicate. 

Pumping Water. — In all cases where water cannot be 
supplied by gravity, artificial means for raising it from a 
lower to the desired higher level must be provided. This 
leads to a more detailed consideration of the usual types 
of water-pumping machinery. 

All such machinery consists essentially of two parts, 
namely the pump lifting the water, and the motor operat- 
ing the pump. There are numerous varieties of appara- 
tus for raising water from which to choose, and only the 
chief kinds will be mentioned here. In actual practice, 
the peculiar conditions governing each problem usually 
restrict the choice of suitable pumping machinery to a 
few types. 

Motors. — As regards the motive force or power, we 
distinguish between motors operated by natural and those 
using artificially created forces. The natural forces ap- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 133 

plied for pumping water comprise the muscular or hand 
power of men, the power of animals, such as horses, oxen, 
or donkeys, the force of the wind, the force of water in 
motion, and the power of falling water. Artificial motive 
powers embrace all motors using fuel in some form of 
engine, in which heat is converted into power. The fuel 
may be either coal, wood, gas, oil, naphtha or gasoline, 
and the power derived therefrom may be either steam, 
compressed air, hot air, or electric power. 

Simple Water-lifting Devices. — Water may be raised 
b.y other and simpler devices than pumps, such as machines 
with scoops, pails or boxes, machines with moving water 
channels, or finally those in which water is raised in fixed 
conduits by chains or other means. Many of these 
devices are of a primitive kind, have gone almost out of 
use, and are only historically interesting. We may safely 
pass them over to discuss the more universally used 
machines, in which water is raised in fixed channels by 
means of pistons, plungers, impellers, worm gears, or by 
steam, water, or compressed air jets. Such machines 
are designated as pumps. 

Pumps. — Pumps may be either lift pumps or lift and 
force pumps. W^e can also distinguish, according to the 
details of the pumping machinery, piston and plunger 
pumps, single and double-acting, rotary and reciprocating, 
and finally simplex, duplex and triplex pumps. In the 
last-named pumps, the three pistons or plungers are 
mounted on the same shaft, while the cranks are set at 
equal angles to each other; a much steadier and more 
uniform discharge is thereby secured. We may also dis- 
tinguish between vertical and horizontal, stationary and 
portable forms of pumps. Water-lifting apparatus also 



134 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

differs, in so far as it may be adapted either for surface 
supplies and shallow wells or for deep wells. 

As regards the connection between the motor and the 
pump, the power in many machines is applied directly, as 
in the direct-acting steam pump, and in the direct-con- 
nected electric pump, both motor and pump being mounted 
on the same shaft. In other cases, the power is applied 
indirectly by means of gearing, belting, noiseless drive 
chains, or crank-shaft movements, and the pumps are then 
designated as power pumps. 

To each kind of pumping engine belong certain advan- 
tages and disadvantages. In every case the conditions 
under which the pumping engine is to do the work should 
be carefully looked into before a selection is made. One 
should always consider not only the first cost of the pump 
but also its running expenses, the cost of the fuel, and of 
repairs and maintenance of the machinery. 

Hand Pumping. — Hand pumping is uncertain and 
unsatisfactory; it can be applied only where small volumes 
of water are to be lifted, and where the lifts are small. 
Lift or force pumps operated by hand are useful only in 
the case of farm buildings or cottages of moderate size. 
Their only advantage consists in the cheapness of the 
labor. In countries where animals are cheap, these too 
are used to some extent in operating water-lifting appara- 
tus, but as a rule such use of farm horses or oxen does not 
commend itself. 

The water to be used on farms or in farm buildings is 
more often lifted by the force of the wind, with windmills, 
or by the force of water in motion, with hydraulic rams. 
As will be pointed out below, both are very economical, as 
the motive power costs practically nothing. If neither of 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



135 



these is available, some form of fuel engine must necessarily 
be used. In this respect both the gasoline and the oil 
pumping engines are very popular, because the cost of the 
fuel which they require is very small. 

Windmills. — Wind as a motive power is utilized exten- 
sively for the pumping of water, and in numerous cases 

windmills, when properly 
installed, provide a satis- 
factory water supply at a 
minimum expense (Figs. 13 
and 14). This motive 



-is 




^_g 




Fig. 13. — Windmill for Pump- 
ing Water to Tank on Same 
Tower. 



Fig. 14. — Windmill for Pump- 
ing Water; Tank Located 
Elsewhere. 



power is convenient as well as economical, but it is also 
somewhat uncertain, for the source of power is beyond 
human control, and the wind does not always blow with 
sufficient force to move a windmill. A velocity of the 
wind ranging from 4 to 8 miles an hour is not sufficient for 



136 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

larger wheels; the best results are obtained with wind 
velocities of from 12 to 16 miles an hour. Windmills 
require some skill and judgment in their application and 
erection, and a preliminary careful study of the topography 
of the grounds should always be made with a view of 
locating the windmill in the most favorable position, for 
it is essential to erect them in a rather exposed elevation, 
on high ground, so that the wheel may receive the full 
force of the wind. Even when so situated, a windmill 
will work only a part of the time, an average of 8 hours per 
day, and to allow for the unavoidable periods of calm, it 
is necessary to provide a very ample storage capacity in 
the tanks. 

A complete windmill pumping plant comprises a tower 
for the wheel, a pump with piping, and a storage tank. 
The tank may be placed below the windmill on the same 
tower, or it may be supported elsewhere. The tower 
must be so placed as to secure the best exposure of the 
wheel, and towers which are too low frequently lead to 
failure. The wheel must be carefully mounted, and the 
tower must be substantial and strong, and be supported 
on brick or stone piers. The corner posts should be 
anchored to the piers by means of strong wrought-iron 
bolts; the tower should be framed and rodded, and not, 
like the cheaper ones, merely spiked together. Both 
wooden and steel towers are used, and there are wooden 
as well as steel wheels. 

The wheels should be built with a view to withstanding 
hard storms. The pumping apparatus should be of the 
simplest kind in order to be easily managed by the farm 
hands. Tank, pump, and piping must be frostproofed, 
except in cases where the supply i-s designed for summer 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



137 



F^B^^" ^B 




, **^| 


1 '^-''^I^^B 


^Mf'M 


1 ^MbV^I 


u^^^MP 


H'^^^i^'^fl^E^Bil^Hlifl^^Bi ^I^^IF wf 


^^I^^T * 


W^ ^ ^^P '^^^^Lmi 


- ^'^ ■ ^^^K, 4k>> ^^^K. M- 


\ .^ii^iffV jtM 


'^^v^-jli „ /*" a^^^HSs''* 


1^^ ^^i4^ "^^C^ 


i^ari,':?. _.:. - .'' ^S^B^. "* 



Fig. 15. — Improved Foem of Hydraulic Ram. 

use only. The wheel is usually provided with self-regu- 
lating attachments. Sometimes a windmill is used for 
other purposes in addition to the pumping of water, such 
as the running of dynamos for generating electricity. 

Hydraulic Rams. — The force of running water is 
utilized in hydraulic rams for the lifting of water to a 
height greater than that of the source of the supply for 



138 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

the ram. Wherever there is a volume of flowing water 
ample at all times to run a ram, this is one of the most 
useful, cheap, economical and satisfactory motors for 
lifting water. A ram requires but very little attendance 
and hardly any care or expense in maintenance. It 
operates automatically and occupies a field entirely by 
itself. 

The ram is set up in an underground pit located at a 
suitable distance below the source of supply; the fall 
required to operate a ram may be as little as 18 inches. 
The existing conditions as to fall and length of drive pipe 
must be first carefully studied out, for they govern the 
location of the ram, its size, and the dimensions of the drive 
and the discharge pipes. Hydraulic rams are made in 
many sizes and capacities, the smallest supplying about 
500 gallons, and the largest up to 500,000 gallons in 
24 hours. They will elevate water to a height from five 
to several hundred feet. Sometimes several rams are set 
to work in batteries, with separate drive pipes, but with 
a common discharge pipe (see Fig. 34). The improved 
forms of rams, or hydraulic engines, shown in Fig. 15 and 
also in Fig. 34 are much more efiicient than the old forms 
and develop an efliciency of from 70 to 80 per cent. These 
types have adjustable valve mechanisms which can be 
readily regulated so as to secure the best working condi- 
tions. Double-acting rams are also manufactured, which 
use an impure source of water to pump a pure supply. 

Water Wheels. — If running water exists in sufficient 
quantity, water may be pumped by utilizing the power of 
falling water either in water wheels or in turbines (see 
Figs. 16 and 17). Hydraulic power is economical when 
we consider the running expenses only, for these may be 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



139 





mi 


« 


1 


a 




^^^H!^3i 


mSSSSm I— 


Ir 


li 


_^„. -,„ Ji 


^ ^^-' 


^^::^^^ 




~1 


> 




m 


i 


^ife-v* 





Fig. 16. — Downstream Xiew of Waterwheel Used for Pumping Water. 




Fig. 17. — Upstream View of Waterwheel. 



140 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

almost nothing; hydraulic power is easily managed as the 
machines require only occasional looking after. On the 
other hand, it should not be overlooked that the initial 
outlay for hydraulic power, for dams, sluiceways, etc., 
may in some cases be quite large. Another drawback is 
that in many situations water power is unreliable and at 
times insufficient. 

Water wheels always turn on a horizontal axis, whereas 
turbines are usually mounted on a vertical axis. The 
different types of wheels, such as the overshot wheel, 
used where the fall in a stream is considerable, and in 
which the water acts both by its weight and by the force 
of the impact; the undershot wheel, used where there is 
only a small fall, and in which the water acts largely by 
impulse; the breast wheel, which in type stands between 
the two mentioned; and finally the turbines, which are 
preferred where there is a considerable fall of water, can 
all be adapted to the running of pumping machinery. 
The efficiencies of these motors are high, particularly 
in the case of overshot wheels and turbines, in which they 
are often as much as 75 per cent. 

Hydraulic motors, in which the water is used in driving 
a piston in a cylinder, much in the same way as steam or 
compressed air operates, are not used for the pumping 
of water for country houses, though in the operation of 
large water works such engines are occasionally met 
with. 

Gas Engines. — Among fuel or internal combustion 
engines, adapted for pumping water, the first to be men- 
tioned is the gas engine. In this machine the motive 
force is produced by the expansion of a mixture of gas 
with air. This, when ignited, explodes, and the force 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



141 



generated is utilized in moving a piston, which in turn 
operates the pump. 

The essential requirements for a gas engine (Fig. 18) 
are a supply of illuminating gas, or else a special gas 
generating plant, and also a supply of water which is 
necessary to constantly cool the engine by means of a 

water jacket. One of the 
advantages of gas engines is 




Fig. 18. — Gas Engine and Pump Direct-Connected, 



that they can be started at full speed almost as soon as the 
gas is lighted. Once started, they require but very little 
attendance. There is no fire to be fed, and no nuisance 
from smoke and ashes. Gas engines are therefore very 
economical machines for the pumping of water. The 
drawbacks are the disagreeable odors arising from the 
burning of gas, or from small leaks, and the noise of the 
exhaust. 

Gas pumping engines for domestic use are built in 



142 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



sizes ranging from 0.5 to 16 horsepower. The gas 
engine has been developed considerably in other direc- 
tions during recent years, and large gas engines, develop- 
ing 1000 and more horsepower, are being successfully 
built and installed in place of steam engines. They use 
for fuel the waste gases from coke furnaces or else require 
special producer gas plants. Gas engines of the form 
shown in Fig. 18 have been frequently used in pumping 
water for isolated houses, but in recent years they are 
being superseded more and more by oil engines. 



m-. 




Fig. 19. — Oil Engine and Pump Connected by Gearing. 

Oil Engines. — Oil engines for pumping water are 
similar to gas engines, except that they do not require a 
gas supply or a gas-producing plant, for oil engines use 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 43 

an independent fuel, such as crude oil or kerosene, which 
is readily supplied and brought to the engine. The oil is 
vaporized by heat, and the resulting vapor is ignited either 
by an electric spark or by other means. The resulting 
compression of air furnishes the motive power. 

The oil engine resembles the gas engine in so far as it 
requires no boiler and no skilled engineer to run it (Fig. 19). 
It is simple in construction, reliable and efficient in action, 
durable in service, and economical to run. It costs but 
little to operate, can be run intermittently, and is quickly 
available in case of emergency. Oil engines are built 
in sizes from i to about 20 horsepower; the smaller sizes 
are more efficient than steam pumps, and compared with 
gas engines they are somewhat cheaper to run. No 
danger is connected with their use, and any ordinary 
intelligent laborer can start and run them. 

Great progress has been made during recent years in 
the design of oil engines. The oil engine is one of the 
more modern kinds of motors for the raising of water; 
it is a favorite, particularly in portable form, and in local- 
ities where the water is so hard as to be unsuitable for use 
in steam boilers. Its only drawbacks are the smell of 
the oil and the noise in operation. 

Gasoline Pumping Engines.— In gasoline pumping engines, 
power is obtained from the explosion of a mixture of 
air and the vapor of gasoline. They resemble in many 
respects the gas engines, but the latter and the oil engines 
are somewhat safer, for gasoline is a highly volatile liquid 
and must be handled and stored with great care. It is 
well known that from the fire underwriters' point of view, 
all mechanical appliances using the vapor of gasoline 
are considered to be highly dangerous. 



144 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



Hot- Air Pumping Engines. — Another type of engine for 
pumping water, which has been used extensively for 
many years, and which has proved quite successful and 
economical in use, is the hot-air or caloric pumping engine, 

two forms of which are 
in general use, viz., the 
Rider and the Ericson 
engines, the former illus- 
trated in Fig. 20. The 
operating force of the 
engine is derived from 
the expansion of atmo- 
spheric air in a cylinder 
by the heat of combus- 
tion. The caloric engines 
are manufactured in vari- 
ous forms, and the fuel 
which they burn is either 
coal, coke, wood, gas, oil 
or gasoline. 

One of the reasons for 
their having proved suc- 
cessful is the fact that 
they can be run and 
attended by unskilled 
persons, and that, after being started, they require very 
little further skilled supervision beyond an occasional 
oiling of the working parts. They cannot, however, as a 
rule, be left for any length of time without occasional 
attendance, and in this respect they are not as satisfactory 
as gas, oil, or gasoline engines. 

No danger is attached to their operation. Hot-air 




Fig. 20. — Rider Hot-Air Engine 
AND Pump. 



COUNTRY HOUSES I45 

engines require a supply of circulating water for the cooling 
of the air cylinder. Compared with oil engines, they have 
the slight drawback that they cannot be so quickly stopped 
when running. 

Hot-air engines are built in several sizes, with capacities 
ranging from 2 to 25 gallons per minute. They force 
water up to a height of from 50 to 150 feet. The power 
developed is small, ranging from { to 2 horsepower. The 
machines are simple in construction and tolerably free 
from noise in action. While they have given excellent 
service in numerous cases, they have the disadvantage that 
some of the working parts are liable to require frequent 
repairs. 

Steam Pumps. — Steam pumps are not often used for 
the supply of water to country houses, but where steam is 
already available, as in the case of large institutions which 
are equipped with a steam boiler plant, the use of a steam 
pump should always be considered. It is quite usual, in 
such cases, to use the well-known forms of duplex direct- 
acting non-condensing pumps, and sometimes the com- 
pound tandem simplex or duplex pumps. Condensing 
steam pumps and high-duty pumping engines are con- 
sidered only in those exceptional cases where high economy 
in operation is expected. Where the power exceeds 15 
to 20 horsepower, steam pumps are economical in use. 
Among the disadvantages are the heavy first outlay for 
the pumping machinery, the constant expenditure for fuel 
to generate high-pressure steam, and. the continuous 
skilled attendance required. 

For an isolated pumping plant, a combination of direct- 
acting steam pump and vertical boiler is much used, which 
commends itself because of the compactness of the appa- 



146 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



ratus. A low-pressure steam and vacuum pump is also 
manufactured; it is adapted for use in residences and has 
been moderately successful. 

Air-Lift Pump. — Water has in recent years been pumped 
by means of compressed air. A form of apparatus 
usually designated as an "air-lift pump" is much used 




Fig. 21. — Three Forms of Air-Lift Pumps. 



because of its simplicity and efficiency, particularly in the 
case of deep wells. Such air-lift devices afford an oppor- 
tunity for increasing the yield of wells. From a sanitary 
point of view, this method of pumping recommends itself 
because of the beneficial effect derived from the aeration 
of the water. From the mechanical standpoint, the air- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 147 

lift device is preferable for deep wells, because it does 
away with any working parts, such as the pump barrel, 
which must be lowered into the well below its water line. 
It dispenses with pumps entirely, and all machinery is 
above ground. The air compressor required may be run 
by an oil engine, by an electric motor, a water wheel or 
turbine, or else by steam. 

There are several forms of air-lifting apparatus; in the 
one shown in Fig. 2 1 at ^ the air and water pipes are placed 
alongside of each other in the well casing and connected 
at the bottom; in another, shown at B, a water delivery 
pipe is placed into the well, and an air pipe passes down 
through the annular space between the well casing and 
the delivery pipe; in still another form, shown at C, the 
well pipe is used as a water delivery pipe, and an air pipe 
is put down into the well, the air being made to escape at 
the bottom by means of a special device. 

The air-lift process of pumping water has been quite 
successful in recent years, and for the future a more fre- 
quent application of the method seems to be assured. 
Compressed air may also be used either at a constant 
pressure or else expansively in direct-acting pumps, but 
this is not a usual form of pumping apparatus. 

Electric Pumps. — In recent years, electric house pumps 
have been used extensively, and this notwithstanding 
the fact that the use of the electric current is still quite 
expensive. Electric power for pumping water has become 
popular and successful because of its many advantages. 
Electric pumps are compact, extremely convenient and 
clean in operation; they occupy but little floor space, are 
generally quite noiseless, create no smell, heat or dirt, 
and require no handling of fuel or the removal of the waste 



148 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



products of combustion. Electric house pumps can be 
run without much skilled attendance and require a mini- 
mum of care and attention. They can be run inter- 
mittently or be fitted up so as to operate automatically. 
The force operating them is produced by means of a 
motor, which converts the electric current into power. 
The motor is either connected directly with the pump 
or else operates it by means of gearing, belting, noiseless 
chain drives or worm gears. An incidental advantage 
of electric pumps is that the power may be transmitted a 
long distance, and that consequently the pumps may be 
operated at a distance from the power-generating station 
or the point of control. In country houses which have an 
electric lighting plant, the current may be utilized during 
the day to raise water. 




Fig. 22. — QuiMBY Electric Screw Pump. 



A popular form of electric house pump is shown in 
Fig. 2 2. It consists of a direct-connected screw pump, 
with motor and pump mounted on the same shaft and bed 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



149 



plate. A belt-driven triplex piston electric house pump, 
designed to run at a moderate speed, is shown in Fig. 23. 
Another pump is a triplex electric house pump, operated 
by worm gearing, the latter rendered noiseless by run- 






Fig. 23. — Belt-Driven Electric Triplex Pump. 



ning in a chamber filled with oil. It consists of three 
parts, a three-cylinder or triplex pump, an electric motor, 
and a noiseless worm-gear transmitter. It has no belts, 
no idler pulleys, no noisy wheel gearing or friction clutches, 
and is durable and simple in action. The working parts 
of the transmitter are enclosed in a tight case partly filled 
with oil, with which the worm gearing is lubricated. The 
entire outfit is mounted on a single bedplate. 



ISO THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Centrifugal Pumps. — Centrifugal pumps could not, 
until quite recently, be used to any large extent for the 
pumping of water, because their power was confined to 
moderate lifts, not exceeding about 20 feet. A new 
modification of the centrifugal pump, shown in Fig. 24, 
differs in this respect, as it is designed particularly for high 




Fig. 24. — Electrically Driven Multi-Stage 
Centrifugal Pump. 

lifts, up to several hundred feet. In this new form of 
centrifugal pump the apparatus is so arranged that the 
water is pumped in several stages, and the pump is desig- 
nated as a multi-stage turbine pump. The different 
impellers are mounted on a single shaft, and the water 
passes through the impeller chambers in succession; in 
this way the usually moderate lift is multiplied several 
times. 

Deep-well Pumping Machinery. — Deep-well pumping 
machinery requires a plunger of suitable size in order to 
keep the speed of the piston within working limits. This 
is one reason why deep wells require pipes of larger diam- 
eter than is necessary with the ordinary driven well of 
moderate depth. For deep-well pumping, a single- 
acting ball valve cylinder pump is the best because of its 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



151 



I 



simple construction. Such apparatus (see Fig. 25) is 
apt to give considerable trouble when breaks occur in the 
working parts which are low- 
ered into the well, sometimes 
to very great depths. The 
entire machinery requires to 
be well-designed and strongly 
constructed, because of the 
great strains on the working 
parts, caused by the stopping 
or starting of the machinery. 

Pumps in General. — The 
above general resume is suffi- 
cient to indicate the points 
which should guide one in 
the selection of a suitable 
apparatus for the pumping 
of water. Whatever the style 
or type of pumping engine 
selected, it must be borne in 
mind that the capacity of 
the pump should be such 
as to furnish the maximum 
daily amount required in a 

few hours, for in the case of country houses, continuous 
pumping is generally out of the question. This state- 
ment applies to all fuel pumping engines. The hydraulic 
ram, the various forms of water wheels, and the wind- 
mill form an exception to the rule. In the case of 
deep-well pumping machinery the size of the pump 
barrel or cylinder must be proportioned to the maximum 
yield of the well. 




Fig. 25. — Deep- Well Pump. 



152 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Reservoirs and other Means for Storage of Water. — 

Having provided the pumping apparatus, it becomes 
necessary to decide upon the means to be provided for 
the storage of water, and incidentally, to determine the 
required storage capacity. In the case of large country 
houses and institutions an ample storage of water is 
essential. But even in the case of smaller cottages, 
a water supply should be provided, flowing under 
pressure, hence some form of storage tank is always 
required. 

Where a site can be found at an elevation sufficient to 
deliver water to the building and the grounds under a 
suitable pressure, a small reservoir may be built. This 
may be constructed either of earth, of stone masonry, or 
of concrete; and it is built most economically by putting 
it partly in embankment and partly above ground. Reser- 
voirs may be built either open or covered; it is best to 
design them in two, about equal, sections, to permit of 
cleaning the one while the other remains in service. The 
compartments should contain at least a ten days' supply 
of water. In the case of ground waters, and also for all 
water which has been filtered, covered or arched-over 
reservoirs, as shown in Fig. 26, are required in order to 
exclude, in the one case the sunlight, in the other dust 
and atmospheric impurities. It has been mentioned 
heretofore that sunlight promotes vegetable growth in 
the case of ground waters, imparting to them a bad taste 
and odor. 

In country districts, where stones abound, a service 
reservoir may sometimes be built at a small expense, but 
as a rule its construction, if built in brickwork or of con- 
crete, and if made water-tight with asphalt or cement, 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



153 




154 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

involves a higher cost than owners of country houses are 
willing to incur, hence reservoirs can be planned only in 
the case of larger buildings or groups of buildings. 

Elevated Tanks. — For the majority of individual build- 
ings, water is raised into, and stored in, elevated tanks. 
These may be constructed of either wood, steel, or wrought 
iron, and the supporting structure is built either in wood, 
in steel, or of masonry. Combinations of these materials 
occur, such as a wooden tank on a steel tower, as in Fig. 27, 
or a wooden or iron tank on a masonry tower. Wooden 
or iron towers (Figs. 28 and 29) if left open, do not enhance 
the beauty of the landscape. In many cases, therefore, 
owners prefer to have the towers enclosed or ornamented ; 
quite often such a water tower can be utilized as an 
observatory where an attractive view of the surrounding 
country may be had. 

Tank Towers. — Tank towers should be proportioned 
and constructed so as to be amply strong to carry the 
heavy load of a tank filled with water; they should have 
good foundations, which must be carried below the frost 
line. The specifications for towers should require the 
best obtainable material and workmanship, because 
exposed towers suffer from the deteriorating effects of the 
weather; they must also be able to withstand heavy 
wind pressures. 

In exceptional cases, two, and sometimes even three 
tanks are placed on the same tower, one under the other, 
the highest being intended for fire service, the middle one 
for the house supply, and the lowest tank for the supply 
of the grounds and of the generally low barn and stable 
buildings. The tanks are, in such cases, piped so as to be 
interconnected. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



155 




» 





156 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

Wooden Tanks. — Wooden tanks are always built 
round, because the circular shape is found to be the 
best to secure tightness. All sizes from 3 to 32 feet in 
diameter, and with staves ranging from 3 to 24 feet in 
length are manufactured, the respective capacities ranging 
from 150 to 120,000 United States gallons. The special 
lumber used for tanks is either cedar, cypress, white pine 
or Oregon fir. 

Cypress lumber is used largely in the western and 
southwestern states, while preference is given in the 
eastern states to white pine and cedar. Some tank manu- 
facturers claim that for exposed tanks nothing is better 
than Red Gulf cypress, but others prefer the pine wood. 
Cypress wood is soft, coarse-grained, and porous, and 
easily becomes water-soaked. Tanks of this material leak 
more and are more easily affected by frost in the northern 
climate, whereas pine lumber is close-grained and such 
tanks are more readily made tight and are otherwise just 
as durable. 

Tank lumber should be clear, selected stock, thoroughly 
air-dried and free from knots, wormholes and shakes. 
The staves and the bottoms are made of 2 J or 3-inch stock; 
the staves, which should not be wider than 8 inches, are 
surfaced and sawed to the proper bevel. They are doweled 
together by means of dowel pins, placed about 4 feet apart. 
All staves must be of the full length and should not be 
spliced. 

The strength of wooden tanks depends principally upon 
the iron or steel hoops with which they are encircled, and 
which always have lugs and bolts to tighten the tanks. 
Hoops are either flat or round; the latter, which are 
required by the underwriters, are preferable because they 



COUNTRY HOUSES 157 

can be better examined and protected from rust. The 
diameter, number, and the spacing of the hoops depend 
upon the size and capacity of the tank. All hoops should 
be well painted before being put on and should be given 
another coat after the tank is erected. It is essential, in 
the construction of a wooden tank, that the weight of water 
should be supported entirely from its bottom, and therefore 
sleepers are laid under the tank bottom, and are cut to the 
circumference of the tank, but a few inches shorter. 
Wooden tanks, when left standing empty and exposed to 
the sun, soon become leaky; those intended for winter 
service should always be frostproofed in the best possible 
manner. Wooden tanks of an oblong or square shape 
cannot be made to stay tight without being lined with 
sheet metal the same as the inside house tanks; for this 
reason they are but rarely used. 

Iron Tanks. — Iron tanks are made either square or 
round, and are built of cast iron, or else of wrought iron 
or tank steel. Square cast-iron tanks, consisting of numer- 
ous sections bolted together with tightly made joints, are 
used only in the interior of buildings. Outside tanks 
are made of wrought iron or of steel, with riveted joints; 
such tanks are nearly always 
round in section. They cost ^^ ^— — = ^ 

from 50 to 100 per cent more F^^^=^ ^^^=^^ ^~~~3 

than wooden tanks, without ^ Z^,^~Lr^^ 

having greatly superior advan- ^^ ^f^ 

tages to offset the larger cost. w^ R 

Iron tanks are commonlv Fig. 30. — Improved Form of 
made with a flat bottom, but ^^""^ ^"^^ ^^™-^^- 

this requires the placing of a number of iron beams at 
short intervals under the tank bottom. A considerable 



158 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

saving can be effected in the cost of the supports by making 
the tank bottom either hemispherical, as in Fig. 29, or 
else by using a compound shape and supporting the tank 
directly and only at its circumference as in Fig. 30. An 
incidental advantage of such more modem forms of tanks 
is that the bottom can be better inspected and repaired. 

Wooden versus Iron Tanks. — The reasons why wooden 
tanks are more often used than steel tanks are that the 
latter are more difficult to erect, that they give trouble by 
reason of sweating, and that they soon rust, if the outside 
paint is not constantly renewed. Iron tanks are also 
more difficult to protect against freezing. But where 
very large storage capacities, exceeding 120,000 gallons, 
are necessary, iron tanks must be used. Hence we find 
tanks, such as those shown in Fig. 29 and Fig. 30, 
largely used in the water supply of institutions, villages and 
small towns. Such large sizes, however, are but rarely 
called for for country mansions, and therefore wooden 
tanks are preferred for these. In practice, it is found 
that the latter last from 15 to 25 years, are not so liable 
to freeze, do not rust, keep the water pure and clear, and 
can be bought and put up for much less money. 

Standpipes. — Instead of providing elevated storage 
tanks, the water is sometimes pumped into standpipes, 
though these are used more for the supply of villages or 
towns than for single houses. They are built of either 
boiler iron or of steel, and are always small in diameter as 
compared to their height. Such standpipes are erected 
directly on the ground or on suitable stone foundations, 
and the water which is pumped up into the lower portion 
forms the support for the water that is stored for use under 
the available or required pressure. Standpipes are often 



COUNTRY HOUSES 159 

left unenclosed and give considerable trouble in winter 
time by the forming of ice. It is safer and better to enclose 
them with masonry as a protection against freezing, but 
this adds greatly to their cost, and hence standpipes are 
not used to any extent in the case of country buildings. 

Inside or House Tanks. — The water required for a 
dwelling may be stored in inside tanks, which may be 
located in the attic, or in the case of institutions some- 
times placed at the top of the main staircase tower. Such 
tanks are built of wood lined with copper, of cast iron, 
of slate, and finally of wrought iron or steel. They are 
usually square or oblong in shape, but can be made to 
fit a space of irregular dimensions and shape. The 
objection to inside tanks is that their size must necessarily 
be limited, not only owing to want of space, but also be- 
cause of the heavy weight of water, which cannot always 
be readily carried, hence they provide but an insufficient 
storage of water. Where an outside tank can be pro- 
vided, it is much better to do so. 

Pressure Tanks. — Another method of storing water 
consists in providing pressure tanks. These are closed 
riveted boiler iron or steel tanks, of any required dimen- 
sions, conveniently placed either on or, more often, below 
the level of the ground. Owing to this location, they do 
not require any expensive supports such as the elevated 
tanks have, though their weight necessarily requires good 
foundations. In some systems the pressure tanks are 
designed to be kept two-thirds full of water, the remaining 
one-third being filled with air under pressure. 

Pressure tanks are always cylindrical in shape and may 
be placed either horizontally or vertically. When used 
without an air compressor, pressure tanks have the dis- 



i6o 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



advantage that the flow of water becomes reduced as the 
water level is lowered in them. 

Some of the advantages of such tanks are that the pipes 
and tanks can more readily be made frostproof; that the 
water is kept at a cooler temperature in summer, and that 
it is not subject to pollution during storage, because the 
tanks are closed. 




Fig. 31. — A Simple Pressure Tank System. 



In using pressure tanks, it is necessary either to provide 
a high initial pressure, so that the last few gallons stored 
may be delivered under a sufficient pressure, or else to 
renew pumping before the tank is empty. For use in 
country houses several systems with pressure tanks, 



COUNTRY HOUSES l6l 

operated either with hand or power pumps, have come into 
use in recent years. A simple system for use in a small 
country house, with vertical tank and handpump, is 
shown in Fig. 31, but the same appliances, of larger 
dimensions, may be used in connection with any of the 
pumping apparatus heretofore described. 

The Acme Water Supply and Storage System. — A good 
modification of the pressure-tank system, consisting of 
pump, air compressor, water tank and air tank, was 
invented and patented years ago by a well-known engineer, 
the late W. E. Worthen. Many examples of this system, 
known in its improved form as the ''Acme Water Supply 
and Storage System," have been constructed, not alone 
for country towns, but also for isolated dwellings. The 
system has many sanitary and constructive advantages, 
provides an excellent fire protection, and does away with 
the use of fire engines. The water stored in the under- 
ground tanks is kept cool, remains pure, and cannot 
become contaminated as in the open tanks. Moreover, 
in the case of underground sources of supply, there is no 
exposure of the water to the sun's rays, hence there will 
be no annoying growth of algas. There is also no trouble 
from the freezing of the water in the reservoir. 

The chief advantages gained by using, as is done in this 
system, an additional tank for compressed air are addi- 
tional water storage capacity, the water tank being com- 
pletely filled with water, and the fact that the last gallon 
of water in the tank is supplied under the initial pressure. 
This cannot be accomplished in those pressure-tank 
system.s which do not have an air tank. For the supply 
of buildings composing a military post, this system has 
the advantage, from the strategic point of view, that 



1 62 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

there is no standpipe or elevated tank at which the 
guns of an enemy could be aimed, hence the water supply 
cannot be cut off or destroyed in case of war. In all 
cases where objection is raised to the appearance of an 
elevated tank, or to the heavy additional expense required 
to make it look well, this system is well adapted and worth 




FROM PUMPS TO DELIVERY MAINS 

Fig. 32. — Diagram Illustrating the "Acme" Pressure 
Tank System. ' 

investigating. The chief features of this system are 
shown in Figs. 32 and 1,^; and in the illustrated examples 
given at the end of this part of the book, several installa- 
tions of the system for country houses are described more 
in detail. 

Water Distribution. — Having pumped the water and 
stored it in elevated tanks, or in reservoirs, or in pressure 
tanks, we have to provide the main conduit pipe to bring 
it to the places of consumption. In the case of important 
buildings, it is advisable to install this main conduit in 
duplicate, so as to provide against the complete cutting 
off of the supply in case of a break. Larger conduits are 
always built of cast-iron pipes with lead caulked joints, and 
when the pressure is heavy, considerable attention must 
be given to the proper jointing of the pipes to avoid con- 
stant leakage and consequent waste of water. Conduits 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



163 




Fig. S3' — "Acme" Water Supply System with Water 
AND Compressed Air Tanks. 



1 64 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

which are 4 inches in diameter or smaller are usually 
constructed of galvanized wrought-iron pipe. 

Outside Pipe System. — The main conduit pipe connects 
at or near the building with the outside water distribution 
system. This pipe system can be laid out in two different 
ways. In one system, the ramified system, the pipes 
are arranged like the trunk, branches and twigs of a tree, 
becoming smaller in diameter as the distance from the 
main conduit increases. Laid out in this way, the laterals 
and branch lines form dead ends, and while this may not 
matter in the case of single country houses with a few 
outbuildings, it is of importance in the case of a group of 
buildings or large institutions. For these it is far better 
to adopt the second or circulatory system, illustrated in 
Figs. 37, 59 and 60, which has no dead ends, and in which 
the extreme pipe ends are looped so that the water circu- 
lates and does not stagnate at any point in the distribution 
system. This system has the further vital advantage of 
maintaining a supply to the individual buildings in case a 
part of the distribution main is shut off for repairs. 

In laying out a water-supply distribution system, com- 
prising mains, sub-mains and laterals, it is always best to 
provide large mains for the sake of efficient fire protection 
(see the exainples), and to carry large laterals, not less 
than four inches, and preferably six inches in diameter, 
to the fire hydrants. It is also good policy to provide 
plenty of valves, so that in case of a break in a pipe line 
a part of the pipe system only is put temporarily out of 
commission. 

Inside Water Distribution Pipe System. — The inside 
water-service system is, even in the case of a single country 
mansion, more intricate than the outside water supply; 



COUNTRY HOUSES 165 

in the case of a group of buildings the work of planning 
the inside distribution becomes at times quite complicated. 
There is always required a double system of water pipes, 
one for cold and the other for hot water. Sometimes a 
third system, for artificially cooled water, is added; and 
in other cases country residences require a double pipe 
system, for rain and for well or spring water. In its 
essential details the inside water service of country houses 
does not differ much from that of city houses. 

The inside distribution system is either a so-called 
header system, in which separate runs are provided for 
each riser, all coming from a single center, manifold, or 
header, or else it is a circuit system, in which large 
mains for cold and for hot water are provided, from which 
short branches are thrown off to the rising lines. 

The first system requires more piping, but the pipes 
become of a smaller size and the control of the lines, valves, 
and drips is placed at one centrally convenient point. It 
is more expensive in first cost, but it is handier to look 
after. In the second system, the valves controlling the 
risers are scattered, therefore it is not so convenient and 
compact for the engineer in charge of the plant, but it has 
some advantages; it is cheaper, and does not require so 
many lines of piping and consequently not so much space 
at the cellar ceiling. 

General Arrangement of Water Pipes. — In arranging 
the water piping in the interior of buildings, several 
essential rules must be followed, such as the placing of 
pipe lines w^here they will not freeze, or, where they are 
unavoidably exposed, the suitable protecting of the 
pipes against damage by frost. Noise and water hammer 
in the supply pipes must be prevented as much as possible 



1 66 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

and the heating up of a cold water line from an adjoining 
hot water pipe, steam line or flue, should be guarded 
against. In laying out a supply system, the aim should 
also be to arrange the pipes, and proportion their sizes, so 
that there will be a good, constant and uninterrupted flow 
at the faucets in a building, if many of them are kept 
running simultaneously. 

Hot Water Supply. — In the hot water supply system, 
circulation pipes should always be provided to permit cf 
the instant drawing of hot water at any faucet in the house. 
This measure is a good help in preventing much useless 
waste of water. In running a circulation pipe it should 
be remembered that if it rises in loop form above the 
highest fixture, an air cock should be provided at the top 
of the loop to avoid air binding. 

Material for Supply Pipes. — Regarding the materials 
used for the water-supply service, it is customary to run 
these lines with galvanized or asphalted wrought-iron 
pipe, with screw joints, where the outside mains and 
laterals are not larger than four inches. The outside 
hydrants are either post hydrants or flush hydrants, and 
it is well to provide a shut-off gate valve at each of them. 
In the case of institutions, all hydrants should be post 
hydrants with indicators. On long lines it is advisable to 
provide blow-offs at low points, so that the line may be 
emptied; this is essential where a pipe line is for summer 
use only. At high points in a main conduit line, air 
valves are provided to prevent air binding, and these are 
sometimes arranged to work automatically. 

Water Supply for Fire Protection. — Of special impor- 
tance in the case of country residences and mansions is 
the matter of their fire protection. As a rule such resi- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 1 6/ 

dences are much more in danger from fire than city 
houses; they are usually located at a distance from any 
regular fire department, their supply of water often falls 
short of the demand, quite usually they are built in a 
flimsy manner, with little or no regard to safety from fire, 
and moreover, they are but seldom provided with proper 
means for the extinguishment of a conflagration. 

It is quite exceptional to find proper attention paid 
to the matter of fire protection, though in some instances 
money is uselessly spent on worthless fire apparatus, put 
in largely with a view of obtaining a reduction in the 
insurance rates. While it is true that a rebate in the 
insurance rates is given by underwriters, this only applies 
— and properly so — where a fire protection system is 
well arranged, and put in in accordance with their 
requirements. 

The means ioi fire prevention do not come within the 
scope of this book, hence cannot be discussed; those for 
fire protection comprise both indoor and outdoor water 
fittings and appliances, which should be briefly mentioned. 

Many houses in the country are provided with an 
inside fire standpipe, too small in size to be of any use in 
an emergency; the water pressure is often insufficient, and 
the fire hose installed is of a worthless type, while out- 
door fire appliances are lacking entirely in the case of 
many fine country estates. 

Outside Fire Hydrants. — Every mansion, and every 
institution located in the country, should have a suffi- 
cient number of outside fire hydrants. In determining 
the distance between the hydrants, it is well to remember 
that considering the life of both, cast iron pipe is cheaper 
than hose. The mains supplying the hydrants should 



1 68 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

be ample in size. For use at the hydrants, there should 
be provided best-quality large rubber-lined hose, hose 
spanners, hose carts and the best form of fire nozzles. 
The entire fire-fighting apparatus should be constantly 
kept in good working order, for otherwise it may be 
found to be unserviceable just when most wanted. 

Not long ago the services of the writer were engaged 
to lay out the water supply of a country estate, compris- 
ing a fine mansion, a large stable, and a gardener's lodge. 
With a view of providing some protection against fire, 
he specified a large water supply main, with a number of 
outside fire hydrants, located near the buildings. But 
when the cost of the proposed work was communicated 
to the owner, who was a rich man and could well afford 
the expenditure, he called the writer a "fool" for making 
the suggestion, and the work was not carried out as 
planned. Some day, this fine unprotected mansion, which 
is located several miles away from the nearest village 
fire engine house, may burn to the ground, and when that 
day comes the owner will have every reason to apply 
the above epithet to himself. 

Fire hydrants and fire hose are useless unless an 
adequate storage of water under a suitable fire pressure 
is maintained. Where this is provided, it takes the place 
of the steam or hand fire engines of a fire department. 

Portable Fire Engine. — In the case of large estates 
which have a natural or artificial lake or pond within the 
grounds, it may be practicable to keep on hand a portable 
steam or hand fire engine, with sufficient and ample size 
fire hose, but this should only be regarded in the light of 
'* auxiliary" fire protection. It is always better to install 
a fire protection equipment which is instantly available in 



COUNTRY HOUSES 169 

case of need; with this in view, all fire apparatus should be 
kept in working order. 

Inside Fire Standpipes. — Regarding the inside fire pro- 
tection, it should be pointed out that in two- or three- 
story houses, having a house tank placed in the attic, a 
fire standpipe, supplied from the tank, has an entirely 
insufficient pressure. Fire standpipes should therefore 
be connected with the outside main, and be supplied 
directly from the main reservoir, the elevated tank or 
the pressure tank. 

In the house, there should be outlets on the standpipe 
with fire valves and fire hose on each floor. Plug cocks 
are not recommended for fire valves, because after being 
installed for some time they set hard and are then very 
difficult to open. The highest quality linen fire hose 
should be purchased, the unlined hose being preferable 
for inside use, as it is less liable to deterioration than 
rubber-lined hose. In addition to the fire hose, a country 
house should have a number of fire pails kept constantly 
filled, besides a few portable pneumatic or chemical fire 
extinguishers. The use of the common hand-grenades 
is to be discouraged. 

EXAMPLES OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS. 

In the following I give a few plans and descriptions of the 
proper arrangement of the water supply for country buildings, 
some of them being taken from my own practice. 

I. An example of a system of water supply for a country 
residence, which includes provision for fire protection, is shown 
in plan in Fig. 34. The water supply for the house and 
grounds is obtained from a brook which runs at all times a 
fairly large stream of water. The water is pumped to an 
outside storage tank by means of two Rife hydraulic rams or 



170 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 




^ 



COUNTRY HOUSES .I7I 

engines, operated by two separate 4-inch drive pipes, and 
having one common 2-inch discharge pipe. The elevated 
tank is a round one, built of wood, and has a capacity of 20,000 
gallons. It is supported on an open wooden tower, the height 
of which is approximately 60 feet. The falling main from the 
tank is a 4-inch pipe, and the main supply conduit is run, 
4 inches in size, to the mansion. A distribution system, con- 
sisting of 3-inch pipes with 3-incli branches to four fire hydrants, 
is provided all around the house. The mains are purposely 
made large because the available tank pressure is not very 
great, the ground where the tank tower is erected being only a 
few feet higher than the site for the mansion. 

An inside fire stand pipe is also supphed from the outside 
service under direct pressure, while the house supply for 
domestic use is obtained from an attic tank fed by a branch from 
the 4-inch main. A 3-inch pipe line is branched off from the 
main and is carried past a sheep barn, with one branch for a 
watering trough and another branch at a second barn for farm 
horses. The 3-inch line is then continued to the main stable 
and carriage house, where another fire hydrant is provided in 
addition to the supply for the coachman's rooms and the car- 
riage wash. With a 2j-inch fire hose attached to the fire 
hydrant, a fire stream was thrown over the house under the 
available pressure, which was approximately 32 pounds on the 
ground level. 

II. As an example of a successful and exceptionally com- 
plete water supply and fire protection of a large hotel building 
in the country, a brief description is given of the water supply 
of an American hotel, "The Mount Washington," situated in 
the White Mountains, near the base of the chain of mountains 
known as the "Presidential Range." This large building, 
shown in two views in Figs. 35 and 39, was provided by the 
author with two distinct systems of supply, namely, one a 
pumping supply from a series of wells, and the other a gravity 
supply from a mountain brook. 

The wells are 17 in number (see Fig. 6). They were 
obtained by means of well-driving machinery, an 8-inch casing 



172 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

having been first driven down through the gravel to a 
depth varying from 30 to 40 feet. Into this casing a 5-inch 
galvanized iron well pipe was lowered ; each well was provided 
with a cleanout and with a valve to shut it off, and the different 
wells were located on both sides of a main suction line, which 
was made 5,6,8, and 10 inches in diameter, and which delivered 
the water to a closed suction chamber connected with the 
pumps. The aggregate yield of the seventeen wells was about 




Fig. 35. — View of Mountain Hotel. 



1050 gallons per minute; the water was pure in quality and of a 
very low temperature. 

The pumping station contains two electric triplex double- 
acting direct-connected pumps (see Fig. 36), namely a house 
pump rated at 350 gallons per minute, and a fire pump rated 
at about 800 gallons per minute. The illustration shows the 
pumps as set before the pump house was built around them. 
These pumps deliver the water through an 8-inch pumping 
main into a series of three wooden tanks, each of 50,000 gallons 
capacity, located on a plateau on a hillside opposite the hotel. 
From the tanks a 12-inch delivery pipe was carried to the site 
of the hotel. The elevation of these tanks is about 150 feet 
above the basement of the hotel, thus providing a pressure 
of about 66 pounds per square inch. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



73 



The 1 2-inch main running to the hotel is sub-divided, as 
shown in Fig. 37, into two 8-inch hnes, running along the two 
fronts of the building. These lines are interconnected at the 
ends and also at intermediate points so as to form a con- 
tinuous loop. From the 8-inch main about twenty 6-inch 
laterals are run to the outside fire hydrants, while there are also 
a number of 3 and 4-inch supplies for the inside plumbing, the 
elevator service and the refrigerating plant. 




Fig, 36. — View of the Two Electeically Operated Pumps. 



In addition to the well supply, a gravity supply is brought 
a distance of over four miles through an 8-inch cast-iron pipe 
line which connects with the 8-inch pumping from the pumping 
station. The mountain reservoir contains approximately one 
million gallons of water, w^hich are stored there by means of 
a plain wooden dam thrown across the stream (see Fig. ^S). 
The fire pump is arranged so as to draw either from the wells, 
or, by means of a separate suction line, from an artificial 
nearby lake. With the pressure from the tanks on the moun- 
tain several efficient fire streams were thrown from the hydrants 
reaching to some height above the top of the building (see 



174 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 




COUNTRY HOUSES 



175 



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i^ 






^IH 



176 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



Fig. 39). In case of an accident to the 12-inch main the water 
can be deHvered from the tanks to the hotel through the 8-inch 
pipe line, and vice versa. 



1^' 












■"^^^ """ ^!^ 




Fig. 39. — View of Fire Stream from Hydrant. 



III. The country estate illustrated in the accompanying 
plan (Fig. 40) was recently fitted up by the writer with a modern 
system of water supply, with a pressure tank installation, 
intended to furnish an abundant supply not only for the needs 
of the mansion, stable, cottage and farm buildings, but also 
for lawn sprinkling, for watering the vegetable garden and for 
fire protection. 

A preliminary examination and survey of the estate and its 
immediate surroundings had shown that three methods were 
available for the solution of the problem. In all of these the 
supply was to be obtained by pumping from a small lake, pro- 
tected against pollution by strict State laws. 

A solution of the problem of water supply which naturally 
suggested itself first, was the use of an elevated water storage 
tank, to be erected on a supporting tower on the grounds near 
the mansion, and to be supplied with water from an engine- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



177 



driven pump. A windmill pump, which would have been both 
simple and economical, w^as found to be out of the question 
in the particular locality considered, on account of the uncer- 
tainty of sufficient wind pressure during the summer time. The 
pumping plant, therefore, located in a small pump house to be 
built near the shore of the lake, was to comprise a triplex power 
pump directly geared to a gasoline or an oil engine. This 




Fig. 40. — Plan of a Pressure Tank Water Supply System. 



project, however, was rejected because of the undesir- 
ability of a tank tower being placed close to the residence. 
No other location for the tower could be found on the owner's 
property, and while it was possible to render the tower attrac- 
tive by architectural ornamentation, this would have added 
considerably to its cost. 

In a second plan, the construction of the pump house and 
cf the pumping plant remained practically the same, but the 
substitution of an underground reservoir for the unsightly 



178 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

tank tower was proposed. On a neighboring property, south 
of the estate, about 2000 feet away, a hillside was found at an 
elevation of about 100 ft. above the knoll where the mansion 
stood. This project involved the obtaining of permission to 
build the reservoir on the site described, also the obtaining of 
the right of way to lay the pipes, either by purchase or by other 
agreement. Such an underground reservoir would have been 
a very satisfactory solution of the problem from a purely engi- 
neering point of view. It offered several advantages, for a 
covered reservoir keeps the water cool, and prevents the possible 
growth of objectionable algae. But the length of the pipe Hne 
required from the lake to the reservoir site, and from this to 
the mansion, was so much greater in this plan that the total 
cost of the system became unduly increased. The plan was, 
therefore, also discarded, for this and some other reasons 
which need not be mentioned. 

The third plan, which was the one finally accepted, con- 
templated a pressure tank supply. The special type selected 
was that described heretofore (see page 161) as the "Acme 
Water Storage and Supply System." For several reasons this 
system recommended itself to the engineer and to the owner. 
It is very compact, and the entire mechanical installation, 
including the air and water tanks, is placed in the pump 
house, and is therefore at all times accessible. No inter- 
ruption of the pumping during the cold weather takes 
place, provided the pump house is kept warm. Then again 
the water can be forced out in this system under any 
desired pressure, which constitutes a distinct advantage 
over a system with either an elevated storage tank or with 
underground supply reservoir. The advantage named is of 
some importance as a fire protection measure. But the chief 
advantages of the third plan were that the storage of water was 
effected on the owner's grounds and not on some neighboring 
higher property; the distribution pipe lines became shorter; the 
water was kept much cooler in the water tank, from which air 
and light are excluded, and the air, coming into intimate con- 
tact with the water, had a purifying influence upon the character 
of the supply. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



179 



In a pressure tank system of this kind two air-tight steel or 
iron tanks are installed, one being .the water tank, the other the 
air storage tank. The pumping machinery forces water into 
the bottom of the water tank, while an air compressor forces air 
under pressure into the top of the air tank. Both tanks are 
connected at the top by an air pipe, and thus air under suitable 
pressure acts upon the water which it discharges through the 
bottom outlet of the water tank, w^hich in turn connects with the 
force or supply main. 

A view of the small pumping station, taken from the lake, is 
shown in Fig. 41. It is a one-story brick structure, with a pump 




Fig. 41. — View of the Pumping Station at the Lake. 



room which is 12 by 20 feet in size and which contains the 
engine, the pump and the air compressor. In a wing, which is 
about 15 feet square, the two tanks are placed. The plan 
(Fig. 42) of the pumping station shows the entire arrangement 
very clearly, and the two interior views which follow help to 
explain it. A staircase leads from the entrance to the pump- 
room floor, which is about 5 feet below the grade level. Such 
a location, partly underground, helps in keeping the building 
fairly warm during mild winter weather. A smoke flue is 
provided so that if desired a heating stove may be set up if 



i8o 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



the system is wanted in winter time, for instance to provide 
fire protection to the main buildings of the estate. 

The machinery of the pumping station consists of a triplex 
plunger pump, having a capacity of 75 gallons per minute, 
a gasoline engine of 10 horsepower, and an air compressor 




Fig. 42. — Plan of Pumping Station showing Pumping 
Machinery, and the Water and Air Tanks. 



having a capacity of 11 cubic feet of free air per minute (see 
Figs. 43 and 44). The pump and the compressor, shown 
in the photographic view. Fig. 43, are mounted on the same 
shaft, which is provided with friction clutches, enabling the 
throwing out of operation of either the pump or the compressor. 
Fig. 45 shows a diagrammatic section through the pump 
house, with the water and air tanks and all their pipe con- 
nections. 

The size and dimensions of the water tank were fixed by 
determining the desired amount of storage, by considering the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



i8i 




Fig. 43. — Interior View of Pump House, showing Engine, 
Pump and Air Compressor. 




Fig. 44. — Another Interior View of Pump House. 



1 82 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

probable daily domestic consumption, the volume needed in 
case of fire, and the intervals required between pumping. 

The size of the air tank depends chiefly upon the air pressure 
to be carried. No matter what the pressure may be in the 
air tank, the same pressure is always carried in the water tank. 
The air tank should have enough air under suitable pressure so 
that all the water stored may be delivered under the given 
water pressure. If the water and air tanks are to be of the 
same size, the initial air pressure carried in the air tank must 
be double the water pressure. Water and air are always 
pumped simultaneously, and the air compressor exhausts 
during pumping the air from the top of the water tank and 
transfers it to the air tank. In Fig. 45 the air suction pipe is 
marked E, while the air discharge pipe is marked /. Another 
pipe, M, controlled by a valve, is the free air suction and is 
used only in case some air has been lost by leakage. It should 
be noted that in this system the pressure carried in the air tank 
is always greater than that in the water tank, except when the 
last gallon of water is discharged, at which moment both 
pressures are equal. 

Fig. 45 also illustrates the apparatus intended to control 
the air pressure on the water tank, and this is shown, on a still 
larger scale, in Fig. 46. It consists of a diaphragm valve on 
the air pipe (see view, Fig. 45), controlled and operated auto- 
matically by a governor. By adding or removing weights 
attached to the lever showii the water pressure carried may be 
increased or decreased within certain Hmits. 

A water storage of 3000 gallons was considered to be ample. 
It was stipulated that one fire hydrant with 50 feet of 2-inch 
fire hose and with i-inch fire nozzle should discharge water 
for about 40 minutes under a sufficient pressure to reach over 
the roof of the house. A fire nozzle under these conditions, 
with a pressure of 27 pounds at the hydrant, discharges per 
minute 75 United States gallons, or 3000 gallons in 40 minutes. 
The daily domestic consumption was estimated to be below 
3000 gallons. The water tank was therefore made 6 feet in 
diameter and 13I- feet long, and the air tank was made of the 
same size. The pressure of water at the pump house had to be 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



183 




o w 

H H 
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B w 

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M < 

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1 84 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



75 pounds, as it was located about loo feet below the house 
and the air tank accordingly carried 150 pounds. A windmill, 
shown in the plan. Fig. 40, was intended merely ?,s an auxiliary 
pumping plant for the winter months, to supply water to the 
farm buildings only. 

The entire outside pipe system consists of galvanized screw- 
jointed pipes. The water main from the pump house is made 
4 inches, the branches to the fire hydrants 3 inches, those for 




Fig. 46. — Details of Automatic Pressure Controlling 

Apparatus. 



the lawn sprinklers and cottage i inch, and those to the large 
buildings ij and 2 inches. All hydrants are flush or concealed 
hydrants with 2 -inch hose connections. The new w^ater 
system is directly connected with the old service pipes of the 
house in such a manner that the house pipes are under a 
pressure from the water tank in the pump house, the static 
pressure on the second floor of the house being 21 pounds. 
Formerly the second floor fixtures had but a sluggish flow of 
water, as they were supphed from an attic tank directly 
over the second floor. The use of this tank was finally 
abandoned. 

In the stable and the cottage the service pipe system was 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



85 



I 



arranged somewhat differently, for during the winter months 
these were to be suppHed from the windmill pump, hence attic 
tanks were installed in both buildings, but the connections were 
so made that during the summer both buildings are supplied 
from the direct-pressure system. 

The operating expenses of the plant were approximately 
as follows: — with gasoline at about 12 cents per gallon, the 
engine required about 1} gallons per hour, or an expenditure 
of I cent per minute, hence to pump 3000 gallons of water cost 
about 10 cents, not including the cost of attendance, which was 
but slight, and the cost for oiling the machinery. 




Fig. 47. — Plan of Water Supply by Pressure Tanks for a 
Large Country Place 

IV. Another example of a pressure tank supply system for a 
country estate is shown in Figs. 47 to 50. Fig. 47 shows the 
topography of a part of the grounds and gives the location of 



1 86 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



the house and stable. The source of supply is a 6-inch driven 
well about 200 feet in depth, yielding about 20 gallons per 
minute. The water is pumped by means of a deep-well pump, 
operated by a pump head driven by an electric motor. The 
owner desired not only to use underground tanks in preference 
to an elevated tank, but he also wanted the pump house to be 
as inconspicuous as possible. With this in view the pump 
house, shown in plan in Fig. 48, was built entirely underground, 



-€2 — H 1- 6i 



^i if cal^F 



Ain T^NH I ! 






Wate,h tahh i i cAf>AcrT-Y 



3000 O-^LLO/tS I 



p 



I ^OTO, 



hThn — ' 

rn <o 






Fig. 48. — Plan of Underground Pump House, with Pumping 

Machinery and Tanks. 

nothing showing above the ground surface except a vent pipe 
in an opening directly vertically over the well. This was 
necessary in case the deep-well pump had to be taken out of the 
well for repairs. Entrance to the pump house is by means of a 
tunnel from the basement of the stable. The inside dimensions 
of the pump house are 12 by 16 feet, and it contains a pump 
head over the well, an air compressor and an electric motor, 
with the necessary switch for turning on and controlling the 
current. The two tanks, one for water, the other for com- 
pressed air, are located in the ground, and only their heads, 
where the pipe connections are, project into the pump house. 
Each tank is 5 feet in diameter and 21 feet long; the storage 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



187 



Z:::^ 



r,^re!m?^7^!;:'?7m^f7^^^^m^, 



WATER.-.- ; 
PR00F.1NG-; 



WATER 

PROOFING- 






VENTILATOR 



y<wm^S^{'c/W<'<^^<^^'' 



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Fig. 49. — Cross Section through Pump House. 



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Fig. 50. — Longitudinal Section of Pump House. 



1 88 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

capacity is 3000 gallons. The air is stored in the air tank 
under a pressure of 80 pounds to the square inch, and the 
water is normally supplied under a pressure of 40 pounds. 
The two sectional drawings through the pump house (Figs. 49 
and 50) show in general the arrangement and construction of 
the house. The air compressor and the pump head are shown 
to be operated by the same shaft, friction clutches being 
provided on the shaft to disconnect either the air compressor 
or the pump as may be desired. Instead of a direct-connected 
pump head and compressor, the two machines may also be 
operated by means of belting. 

V. An example of a still larger water-supply installation 
with pressure tanks, planned and executed under the direction 
of the writer, is shown in plan and section in Fig. 51. It is 
intended for the supply of a large country estate, comprising 
mansion, stable, barns, greenhouses, gatekeeper's lodge, and 
for the watering of the grounds and of lawn-tennis courts. 
The relative location of the buildings is shown in the general 
plan. Fig. 52, in which portions have been cut out to enable 
the reproduction of the plan on this page. The actual dis- 
tances between the various buildings are greater than shown. 

The supply of water is obtained from a driven and bored 
well about 258 feet deep, cased with 6-inch and 8-inch well- 
tube casing, the weW yielding about 25 gallons per minute. 
Owing to the fact that the water was of a high degree of hard- 
ness, it became necessary to put in a water-softening plant, com- 
prising mixing tank, sump, sedimentation basin, filtration 
basin and a clear-water storage reservoir. All the tanks and 
the reservoir were built of reinforced concrete. 

The water-storage reservoir is 12 feet by 22^ feet and nearly 
6 feet in depth, holding about 10,000 gallons of water. It was 
floored over with heavy iron beams and the pumping machinery 
was placed on the concrete floor. It comprises deep-well pump, 
triplex pump, electric motor of 20 horsepower, air compressor, 
and 20-horse power gasoline engine. 

The deep-well pump has a capacity of 25 gallons per minute, 
the triplex pump of 90 gallons per minute. Both pumps as 
well as the air compressor are direct-connected by means of 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



189 



shafting carried in pillow blocks, and provided with friction 
clutches to enable the throwing out of any part of the machinery. 
The gasoline engine drives a countershaft by means of belting, 
and the shaft is in turn connected with the pumps and the 



vwjJ'/«*W.l'AW»fcv^'."m* ' W^'W-ttV. it.v 




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Fig. 51. — Plan and Section of a Water Softening and Pres- 
sure Tank Plant for a Large Country Estate. 



compressor. Should the electric power fail, the plant can be 
operated by the gasoline engine. 

Water is stored under 40 pounds pressure in two water tanks, 
each 6 feet in diameter and 24 feet long, holding 5000 gallons 
each. Air is stored under 120 pounds pressure in one air tank, 
6 feet diameter and 32 feet long. The tanks are placed in the 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 




COUNTRY HOtJSES I9I 

ground and are covered, but the heads of the three tanks 
extend into the basement of the pump room, which is reached 
by the stairs. 

The well water is first pumped by the deep-well pump into 
the mixing chamber or tank, where soda ash and lime are added 
in the proportions required to render the water soft; it then 
passes through the sedimentation and filtration basins, and 
finally overflows into the clear-water reservoir. 

The triplex pump takes its suction from this reserv^oir and 
forces the softened and clarified water into the pressure tanks. 
The air and water tanks are suitably connected and a pressure 
governor is provided, which is not shown in the illustration. 
It is similar to the one already described in connection with 
Fig. 46. 

The pump house is about 24 J feet long and 31 J feet wide, 
and is entirely enclosed and provided with heating apparatus 
for the winter. 

The water distribution to the buildings is as follows: A 
4-inch water main, of cast iron "Universal" water pipe, is laid 
from the water tanks to the house, and supplies not only this, 
but also all the fire hydrants about the house and at the 
stable, seven in all, and also the fire lines of house and stable. 

Another 3-inch line runs from the water tanks to the stable, 
and supplies all the plumbing fixtures of the stable and the 
plumbing in the farm superintendent's cottage. (See Fig. 52.) 

VI. A water supply plant for a country estate at Port 
Chester, N. Y., which was put in under the author's direc- 
tions, is shown in Figs. 53 to 58. The system adopted is the 
pressure tank system with separate air and water tanks. 

Fig. 53 shows the location of the house, the garage, and of 
the pump house and water reservoir. The pumping appara- 
tus was placed conveniently near to the reservoir, but the 
storage tanks for air and water were located on top of the hill, 
in the cellar of the garage building. 

The dwelling house is located approximately 100 feet above 
the pump house. A duplicate plant is provided throughout, 
i.e. J two water tanks and two air tanks, each of 4000 gallons 







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COUNTRY HOUSES 



197 



capacity; the pumps and air compressors are also in dupli- 
cate. The machinery in the pump house comprises a triplex 
pump of 91 gallons capacity per minute; another similar 
pump of 50 gallons capacity; one Nash gasoline single cyhn- 
der engine of 7 horsepower and another larger double-cylinder 
engine of 15 horsepower; also two air compressors, of 11 and 
15 cubic feet free air capacity per minute. 

A duplicate set of pumping mains is provided, viz., a 4-inch 
pumping main for the larger pump, and a 2-inch main for the 




58. — View in Pump House. 



smaller engine and pump. Normally, the larger engine and 
pump supply the tanks in the garage, and the smaller engine 
and pump deliver water into a greenhouse tank, this being an 
auxiliary system. 

The position of the machinery in the pump house is shown 
in Fig, 54. Fig. 55 shows the addition to the open reservoir 
constructed under the author's directions and the pipe con- 
nections between it and the pump house. Fig. 56 shows the 
location of the tanks in the cellar of the garage. 

Fig. 57 shows details of the water and air tanks. Normally a 
pressure of 80 pounds is carried in the air tanks and a pressure 
of 40 pounds in the water tanks. 



198 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



The two air pipes connecting the air compressors with the 
air and water tanks are laid in the same trench with the two 
water pipes. These air pipes are ij inches inside diameter. 

The two pumping mains are interconnected in the pump 
house and also at the garage. The piping for the reservoir 
and in the pump house pit is so arranged that water may 
be drawn either from the old reservoir or from the new addi- 
tion. The work of construction was carried out by the Acme 
Water Storage and Construction Company. Fig. 58 is a view 
in the pump house taken by the author, and shows one of the 
gasoline engines with the triplex pump direct-connected to it. 



TANK TOWER 




r^^ 


""^^'^^^^JiEsr- 


..^^^^^ 




j^^ 


^^Si^ 




mix 


.<'^- 




Fig. 59. — Plan showing Arrangement of Water Distribution 
Mains for a Small Institution. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



199 




200 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

VI I. In order to illustrate the proper arrangement of the 
water-supply distribution system for larger institutions, I give 
in Figs. 59 and 60 two plans of groups of buildings, the water 
supply distribution of which was arranged by me on the 
"circulatory" system. The sizes of the mains and of the lat- 
erals, also of the branches to the numerous fire hydrants, pro- 
vided for the sake of efficient fire protection, are given in the 
plans. The plans also explain how it is possible by means of the 
shut-off gate valves provided to keep any of the buildings 
supplied even when a part of the water mains is temporarily shut 
off for repairs. 

VIII. About fifteen years ago the Ocean Grove Association 
of Ocean Grove, N. J., erected a large auditorium capable of 
seating over 10,000 people. A serious problem confronted 
the managers in the shape of an inadequate water supply, the 
system then employed being driven wells and deep well pumps. 
A committee, appointed to investigate the best methods of 
obtaining a supply of water for a prospective population of 
50,000 persons, made exhaustive examinations of the sur- 
rounding country, and secured data regarding the natural 
supply from the watershed of the adjacent territory, but the 
water was found to be of such a character that it could not be 
used. It was then decided to adopt the Pohle air lift system, 
as it was thought that with proper machinery this would 
do the work satisfactorily. The plant was installed by the 
Ingersoll-Sargent Drill Company, under the superintendence 
of the company's engineer, and the outfit provided for a popu- 
lation of about 100,000, the daily capacity of the plant being 
250,000 U. S. gallons. 

The illustration. Fig. 61, shows in vertical section the 
arrangement of the water plant. It consists of a Corliss steam 
engine A, driving an air compressor B, and a water pump F. 
The plant is made in duphcate, the engines being so propor- 
tioned that they may be run compound condensing. Steam 
is supplied by four return tubular boilers of 600 horsepower 
capacity. 

By means of the Pohle air lift pumps D, the water is taken 





Fig. 62. — Detail 
SHOWING Method of 
Lifting Water from 
Well by the Air- 
LiFT System. 



202 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



from 20 driven wells, ranging in depth from 400 to 600 feet, 
and from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. In this system the pump 
proper (see Fig. 62) consists of only two plain open-ended 
pipes. The- larger of these constitutes the discharge pipe and 
is formed with an enlarged end piece, in which the smaller 
pipe enters. In pumping, compressed air is forced through 
the air pipe into the enlarged end at the bottom of the water 
pipe, thence by the inherent expansive force of the compressed 
air, layers or pistons of air are formed in the water pipe, which 
lift and discharge the water layers through the upper end of 
the water discharge pipe. 




Fig. 63. — Diagram showing 
Essential Parts of the 
AiR-LiFT Systems or Water 
Supply. 



Upon examining Fig. 61 it will be seen that the compressed 
air passes from the compressing cylinder B to the air receiver 
C and thence to the Pohle pump placed in the well D, which 
lifts the water to the cistern E. The pump cylinder F takes 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



203 



its supply from the bottom of the cistern and delivers it into 
the tank G, from which it enters the distributing mains. The 
plant thus consists of a combination of two systems — by 
means of compressed air the water is first raised to a cistern 
at the surface, and from thence it is raised by a steam pump 
to the distributing tank. The plant has been found eco- 
nomical and reliable in every respect, and no trouble whatever 
has been experienced in obtaining all the water required. — 
{From the Metalworker). 

Fig. 63 is a diagrammatic illustration of the method of opera- 
tion of the air-lift system. This cut was intended to be inserted 
on page 147, in the general description of the air-lift method 
of pumping water, but was omitted by an error in printing. 

IX. The following description of a water works installa- 
tion for the Narragansett Bay Coal Depot, of the U. S. Navy 



SKETCH OF HYDRAULIC RAMS 
AT NARRAGANSETT BAY COALING STATION 




Fig. 64. — Water Supply by Means of a Rife Hydraulic 
Engine. 



Department, in Narragansett Bay, R. I., is condensed from a 
paper by Augustus Smith, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., from Trans- 
actions, Vol. LVII, Paper No. 1032 of 1906. 



204 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



The Bureau of Equipment installed the plant, which is 
shown in Figs. 64 and 65. 




Fig. 65. — Detadl op Large Rife Hydraulic Engine. 



Fig. 66 shows the general location and arrangement of the 
water works system. ^ is a concrete dam, impounding about 
3 million gallons of water, the top of the spillway being at 
elevation + 40 above mean low water. 

5 is a duplex hydraulic ram, of the Rife engine type, made 
by the Power Specialty Company, 11 1 Broadway, New York. 
It is driven by a 12-inch power or drive pipe running from the 
dam at C, which impounds a comparatively small volume of 
water at elevation +81. 

D is a, standpipe, of 275,000 U. S. gallons capacity, which is 
filled by an 8-inch delivery pipe from the ram. The remain- 
der of the water wastes into the lower reservoir. The bottom 
of the standpipe is at elevation -f- 93 above mean low water. 
The standpipe is 30 feet in diameter and 52 feet high. E is 
a cast-iron pipe supplying the fire hydrants and water supply 
system at the station. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



205 



r. S. NAVAL COAL DEPOT, 

NARRAGANSETT RAY, R. I. 




Dock 



Fig. 66. — Plan showing Water Supply by Ram for United 
States Navy Department's Coal Depot at Narragansett Bay. 



206 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

By suitable valves water can be drav/n either from the 
standpipe under the full head, or from the main reservoir under 
a head of about 40 feet. The lower head is ample for supply- 
ing water to the ships and for similar purposes, but for the 
sake of fire protection the full pressure from the standpipe is 
usually carried in the main. This pressure is sufi&cient to 
throw a stream from a 2j-inch hose over one of the storage 
buildings. The water works were put in operation in 1903. 

In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, 
Mr. E. H. Foster, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., called attention to 
the originality of the design of the plant. A great many of 
the details presented problems which called for entirely new 
solutions bordering closely on inventions. In spite of this, 
however, the plant has been most conspicuously successful 
from the first time it was put into service, and it reflects 
credit equally upon the designers and the contractors. 

One of the uncommon features of the plant is the use of 
hydraulic rams for the water supply. The problem presented 
was to keep the standpipe full by the power of the water 
falling from the upper to the lower reservoir. This stream of 
water, while of ample volume at certain seasons of the year, 
would shrink to such small proportions during dry weather as 
to be scarcely enough to furnish the necessary power to drive 
a water wheel and pump; therefore it became necessary to 
seek a more efficient means of utihzing this power. It was 
desired not to keep an attendant at the pump house, and 
after much consideration it was decided to install a duplex 
hydraulic ram with two 12-inch drive pipes. The rams would 
have been duplex if a common delivery valve chamber had 
been used; in reality, the delivery valve chambers were made 
in two separate units, hence the ram is not strictly "duplex," 
but consists of two independent machines, each exactly like 
the other, and may be operated separately or together. The 
conditions under which the rams were installed were that the 
efficiency should be 70 per cent; also that they should be 
capable of filling the standpipe in 36 hours when the power 
water was supplied at the rate of i cubic foot per second, or 
in 12 hours with 3 cubic feet per second. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 20/ 

The results obtained in the test are interesting, as they 
exceeded all the guaranties considerably; in fact, they were 
quite remarkable; they laid bare the hitherto undeveloped 
possibilities of this kind of hydraulic machine for pumping 
water, where water power exists, without attendance and 
with high efficiency. These rams were designed specially for 
this work, and while perhaps not the largest that have ever 
been built, were probably the first large rams to be used with 
such high working head. It would appear, from the results 
which these have given, that rams of much larger size could 
be built with safety. 

Extract from Official Test of Rams. 

Total water delivered to engine, in gallons per min- No. i No. 2 

ute((2) 582 578 

Water delivered to standpipe, in gallons per min- 
ute (q) 232 228 

Power head, in feet (H) 36.75 37-25 

Pumping head in feet {h) 47-25 46.85 

Strokes per minute 130 130 

EflBciency per cent (D'Aubuisson formula) 91. 11 88.95 

Efi5ciency per cent (Rankine formula) 85.22 81.76 

In connection with the test of the rams, an interesting dis- 
cussion as to the proper formula to be used in determining 
the efficiency developed. Two well-known authorities, Ran- 
kine and D'Aubuisson, each give formulas which differ mate- 
rially, thus: — 

Rankine formula: 

D'Aubuisson formula: 

q_(H-Ji) 
^ QH ' 

Under these conditions of fall and pumping head, the 
second formula gives an efficiency nearly 7 per cent greater 
than that of the Rankine formula. 



208 THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

After some correspondence the Department finally ruled 
that the D'Aubuisson formula was the more logical, and 
therefore should be accepted as correct, on the grounds that 
only the rams were actually under test, and that they should 
be charged with the energy received at the point of reception, 
and credited with the energy delivered at the corresponding 
point of delivery. In whatever way this matter may be re- 
garded, the efficiency obtained is certainly very high, and 
cannot be approached by any other form of hydraulic motor 
known. From this it would seem as if a very large field of 
usefulness awaits the further development of hydraulic rams. 

Note. — Bulletin No. 205 of the University of Wisconsin, of March, 
1908, brings a dissertation on "An Investigation of the Hydraulic Ram," 
by Leroy Francis Harza, which is very interesting, and in which the 
author adopts the Rankine formula as the one from which to figure the 
work performed by the ram. 

X. Fig. 67 shows an interesting example of the modern use 
of concrete in water supply structures. The water tank shown 
was designed by Mr. F. J. Sterner, architect, and built by 
Mr. DeLancey A. Cameron, to whom I am indebted for the 
following description of the structure, taken from an article 
contributed by Mr. Cameron to Cement Age of January, 
1908. 

The tank gives a water storage of approximately 15,000 
U. S. gallons, and is designed to supply a residence and 
grounds at Katonah, N. Y. The tank is 22 feet outside 
diameter, with a circular wall, 10 inches thick and 6 feet deep 
inside, sloping several inches toward the center. It stands on 
eight concrete columns placed at the circumference, with con- 
crete girders extending from four of these columns to a center 
column. The floor is 12 inches thick at circumference and 
about 8 inches at center. 

The concrete was formed in about the proportion of 
I cement, 2 sand and 3 broken stone, and used very wet for 
both the floor and the walls. The wall is reinforced with 
Clinton welded reinforcement f-inch wire, 2 by 12 mesh, 
extending around the circumference in one length and fas- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



209 



tened together at the ends. It is placed about 2 inches from 
the outside. The girders, 18 inches by 12 inches, have J-inch 
square rods at the bottom, and Chnton reinforcement extend- 
ing from six inches in the floor, along the outside of the girder 
under the rods and along the other side, and 6 inches into the 
floor again. The floor is reinforced with same kind of mate- 




11 I 






Fig. 67. — View of a Reinforced Concrete Water Tank. 



rial running across the girders and into the walls, where the 
ends are turned up. The supply and waste pipes extend 
through a hole in center column. The tank was stippled 
with cement mortar on the outside, and then one coat of a 
cold water paint was applied. On the inside it had a coat of 
cement mortar, i cement to 2 sand, plastered on the concrete 
of wall and floor, and then two washes with very thin neat 
cement applied with brush, this being done several weeks 
after concrete was formed. 



2IO THE WATER SUPPLY OF 

The tank without a roof had 4 feet of water in it last winter, 
when cold weather came on, and ice formed 10 inches on the 
top and over 2 inches thick on the sides down to the bottom. 
The tank showed no cracks and needed no repairs after the 
ice melted in the spring. It is absolutely water-tight and 
shows no dampness on the outside of walls or floor. 

The builder states that he inspected the tank recently and 
found it in perfect condition, except that the white paint on 
the exterior had more or less fallen off. He recommends to 
use white cement instead of white paint. It was found nec- 
essary during the winter to box in the central column of the 
tank through which the intake and outlet pipes run, to keep 
them from freezing, because the tank is located in a very 
exposed position at the top of a hill. 

Mr. Cameron makes a specialty of buildings in concrete 
and is at present constructing several other reinforced con- 
crete reservoirs. 

XL The following work of water supply for a country 
estate, designed by Mr. Albert L. Webster, C.E., consulting 
engineer, is of interest. The estate, located at Bernardsville, 
N. J., comprises about 300 acres of land, hilly and well wooded, 
which was laid out as a private park, under direction of a 
landscape architect, and which also contains farm and grazing 
land, a kitchen garden and other accessories of a country 
villa. At the summit of the principal hill (see Fig. 68) a 
large mansion was erected, and at convenient locations a 
stable, a farm house, a dairy, barn and employees' houses. 
The estate was further improved by grading, drainage, the 
building of various roads and walks, the provision for irriga- 
tion, and the improvement of a natural lake. 

The water supply is obtained from several springs, and its 
collection, storage and distribution, together with the dis- 
posal of the sewage and of rain water, involved considerable 
engineering work, executed under the direction of Mr. Webster. 

The spring from which the entire water supply is obtained 
is located at A, Fig. 68. This spring has a minimum daily 
flow of about 8000 gallons. Its flow is stored in a twin res- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



211 



ervoir R, of 70,000 U. S. gallons capacity. The details of 
this reservoir are shown in Fig. 69. The walls are built of 
rubble masonry, laid in Rosendale cement mortar. The 
bottom is hned with a bed of concrete, 8 inches thick, 
made continuous with a footing under the walls. The entire 
interior surface is plastered i inch thick with Portland cement 




Fig. 68. — Plan of Country Estate showing Water Supply 
AND Sewage Disposal Systems. 



mortar, mixed in the proportion of i sand to i cement. The 
side of the reservoir adjoining the ice house is coated with 
asphalt and the entire reservoir is surrounded with footing 
course tile drains. 

The reservoir is divided into two equal chambers by a 
central partition wall, and it is filled from the spring through a 



212 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



4-inch pipe. This pipe has a valved branch discharging into 
the top of each chamber at the corners opposite the overflow 
pipes. The supply from the reservoir is pumped through a 
vertical suction pipe in each chamber provided with gate 
valves, foot valves, strainers and emptying valves. The suc- 
tion pipes connect with a common pump main. On one side 
of the reservoir a valve well is built to accommodate both cham- 
bers, and from it open overflows, and valved emptying pipes 




SECTION OF RESERVOIR 

Fig. 69. — Plan and Section of Water Reservoir. 



are brought from the respective chambers and terminate in 
connections to an iron pipe which is extended beyond the line 
of the reservoir with 6-inch galvanized iron pipe and there 
connected with a 6-inch clay pipe discharging into the adja- 
cent stream, which formerly received the entire flow from the 
spring. The emptying pipes are valved so that they can 
serve also as an equalizing connection between the two divi- 
sions of the reservoir. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



213 



The reserv'oir is protected by a simple wooden roof, and the 
masonry walls have an embankment sloped down on the 
outside, and turfed over. Adjacent to it is an ice house about 
50 feet square for the storage of ice cut on the lake. 

Another spring B, Fig. 68, is provided with a hot air pump- 
ing engine, and can furnish 20,000 gallons more water a day 
if required, and a third, having a capacity of 17,000 gallons 
daily, can be made available if necessary. 




SIDE ELEVATION 




END ELEVATION 




PUMP HOUSE 

Fig. 70. — Plan, Section and Elevations of Pumping Station. 



The main supply is pumped from reservoir R by duplicate 
steam pumps located in a pump house, which normally deliver 
to the tanks at the mansion and to the elevated reserv^oirs 
E and F, and can also throw a fire stream over the house. 
The reservoir E has a capacity of 17,000 gallons, and is 
intended to provide for garden irrigation. Reservoir F has a 
capacity of 3000 gallons, and supplies the stable and farm 
buildings. 

A hot-air pumping engine is installed at the spring B, and 
its discharge pipe is cross connected so as to deliver directly 



214 



THE WATER SUPPLY OF 



to reservoir £, or to the main from the steam pump at the 
dairy house, and thus to all the reservoirs and tanks. 

The pump pipes are all carried in trenches 4J feet below 
the surface of the ground, which also contain electric conduits 
for light and telephone wires, and which are accessible through 
brick manholes at the valve boxes, junction boxes, etc. 

The arrangement of the steam pump and the connections 
of the pipe at the main pumping station in one end of the 
dairy house are shown in Fig. 70. The construction of valved 
manhole No. i and the cross connection of pipes there is 



S urface of Ground. 



^Electric 
Conduits^ 

Coating Outside. 
ETrom Hot Air Pump- 



Valve Manhole. No. I 




Section. 

fy TO Mouse , 
\3'[iectricConclvi 



Section. 




Plan 
Junction Box. 



Fig. 71. — Details of Manholes and Junction Boxes. 



shown in Fig. 71. Here, as in all manholes, several capped 
sleeves are built in the wall in order to provide for future 
electrical connections if desired, without cutting the brick- 
work. Plugged Tees are also provided on water pipes in each 
manhole intended for future extensions if required. One of 
the junction boxes on the main line is shown in Fig. 71; it is 
also provided with capped sleeves and a plug on the water 
pipe, which permit future extensions. [From Eng. Record.] 

The sewage disposal plant of this estate is described in the 
examples given in the third part of the book. 



III. 

SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 



215 



THE SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF COUNTRY 
HOUSES 



THE SEWAGE QUESTION FOR ISOLATED COUNTRY 
HOUSES AND VILLAGE DWELLINGS* 

Evils of Cesspools and Privy Vaults. — It is a pernicious 
and barbarous custom to store the liquid household wastes 
and human excreta for any long period of time near 
habitations. If thus imperfectly disposed of, they soon 
undergo a most dangerous putrefaction, become the cause 
of a pollution of the soil, the air and the water, and may 
favor the breeding and spreading of infectious diseases. 
Primitive methods, however, are gradually, though slowly, 
giving way to more judicious methods of sewage disposal. 

Great centers of population have long ago decided to 
abolish the dangerous cesspools and the filth-reeking 
privies; even many of the smaller cities and towns are 
waking up to the necessity for immediate action. Less 
perceptible, though undoubtedly not wholly lacking, is 
the interest taken by the smaller village communities, or 
by isolated country estates and farmsteads, in this question 
of a proper disposal of the liquid household refuse. 

* Sewerage and sewage disposal for country houses are discussed at 
length in the author's book "The Disposal of Household Wastes," also 
in his book "Sanitary Engineering of Buildings." The three articles 
reprinted here appeared originally in various technical publications, and 
give a broad general review of the subject. The last one includes a 
more detailed discussion of bacterial methods of sewage disposal, and 
contains many plans and illustrations taken from the practice of the 
author, as well as some from that of other engineers. 

W. P. G. 
217 



2l8 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

The remedies to be applied vary necessarily for various 
localities and for different conditions. In the case of 
cities, of towns and of densely populated villages, it is 
obvious that only the united action of the residents can 
effect any reform. In other words, the community as a 
whole must devise proper measures for sewage removal 
and disposal, by employing expert engineers and specialists 
to design and construct the system decided upon. 

Sewage Disposal for Detached Houses. — In rural dis- 
tricts, where houses are isolated and generally at long 
distances apart, the case is quite different. Here each 
owner is, generally, compelled to meet alone the difficulties 
which confront him and to make the required provisions 
for his own sewerage and sewage disposal. Fortunately, 
these are not often insurmountable, as the following 
considerations will show. 

Isolated country dwellings and farmhouses usually 
derive their water supply from wells, springs or cisterns. 
It is, consequently, of the utmost importance to keep the 
water pure and to prevent any possible contamination, 
either directly or by soil pollution. It is clear, at the outset, 
that the first imperative duty is to do away with any privy 
or leaching cesspool that may exist on the premises. 

Earth Closets. — A simple and cleanly, and in all 
respects entirely satisfactory substitute for the privy is the 
earth closet, of which inexpensive, as well as more com- 
plicated types exist. The action of dry earth, in not only 
deodorizing, but also rendering harmless, excreta of men 
and animals, has long been well known. More recently 
the observation was made that if the urine be kept separate 
from the solids, a much smaller quantity of earth will be 
required to cover and absorb the latter, also that the closet 



COUNTRY HOUSES 219 

will be more easily kept free from smell, and that it may 
therefore be located close to the dwelling without becoming 
a nuisance, if it only be properly used and well taken care 
of. The closet seat, therefore, should be arranged in such 
a manner that a separation of solids and liquids is at once 
effected. The dry earth manure ought to be removed at 
frequent intervals, and used in the garden attached to the 
country house. But what to do with the urine after 
separation is the next question ? 

Slop Water Disposal. — Chemical researches have long 
established the fact that the most valuable fertilizing 
elements are contained in the liquid manure, and for this 
reason alone the aim should be to utilize it. Inasmuch as 
every country house, no matter how small, must necessarily 
dispose of another kind of liquid refuse, comprising the 
slop water from bedrooms, the soapy wastes from the 
wash tubs, and the greasy waste water from the kitchen 
sink, the thought readily occurs to combine the urine with 
the slop water. The fact is well known to every gardener 
that soap suds make an exceedingly valuable liquid manure 
for pot plants, vegetables and fruits of all kinds. 

The remedy for the usual slop-water nuisance in villages 
or farmhouses is, therefore, obvious. Instead of throwing 
the slops on the ground near the kitchen door, where they 
soon create a bad nuisance, and instead of allowing the 
filthy liquid to soak away from a leaching cesspool into the 
subsoil, all slop water should be collected in a small under- 
ground tank, built thoroughly tight, and the liquid should 
be distributed either by gravity or by means of a pump, at 
frequent intervals in the kitchen garden, or used to irrigate 
the roots of shrubbery, or, if at some distance from the 
house, a small surface irrigation system may be arranged. 



220 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

Inasmuch as a slop-water tank will be needed for even the 
smallest cottage, to temporarily store the liquid sewage, it 
is a simple matter to run the urine from the earth closet 
to it by means of a small drain pipe. To prevent any 
obstruction it is advisable to insert into the funnel under 
the closet seat a sieve or strainer. 

Subsurface Irrigation. — A more elaborate, yet simple 
method of disposing of slop water is that by means of 
''subsurface irrigation," and this has been recently intro- 
duced in many isolated country houses. In this system 
the liquid sewage, after being collected in a tight vessel or 
sewage tank, is distributed at intervals under the surface 
of the soil by a network of small, porous, open-jointed 
drain tiles, and the sewage is purified by the action of 
vegetation, the roots of grass or shrubbery taking up 
nourishment from the liquid, while the latter filters away 
through the soil, in which bacterial purification takes place. 
The method is equally applicable to those country houses 
which, having an abundant supply of water, are furnished 
with water-closets and bathrooms, but the details of the 
arrangement require in this case some modification. While 
not always perfect in its action, it is one of the best methods 
of removing and disposing of the sewage in the case of 
isolated country houses. 

In this connection the following quotation from an early 
volume of the Sanitary Engineer is interesting: 

"An open cesspool for waste water from bath and basins 
only will contaminate the soil about it quite as surely as if 
receiving the drainage of water-closets, though perhaps not 
quite as rapidly. It is better to distribute the refuse on or 
near the surface. A collection of waste water from bath tubs 
and washbowls will become as foul as any other refuse from 



COUNTRY HOUSES 221 

the house, and differs only from other refuse in being diluted 
by a greater bulk of water. 

" The disposal of house sewage in suburban residences is a 
very troublesome question, especially where a public water 
supply is afforded without sewers — a state of things which is 
not compatible with pubHc safety. Distribution on the surface 
is the simplest method, but this requires at least an acre about 
every house, in order to make it free from offense. 

" It can be distributed in porous tiles about lo inches under 
the surface on smaller house lots if the conditions are favorable 
— viz: a well-drained or porous soil. 

" Whether on the surface or beneath it, there must be slope 
enough to allow the sewage to flow by gravity from the bottom 
of the cesspool to the place of distribution, otherwise pumping 
is necessary, which is, of course, onerous. 

"When distributing in pipes beneath the surface, it is usual 
to lay 2-inch unglazed tiles, with joints at least one-fourth of an 
inch open, in trenches lo or 12 inches deep, graded with a 
uniform fall of not over i inch in 10 feet at most, and sometimes 
not over half this amount. Sufficient ramification and. length 
of pipe must be provided to give a capacity of at least one-half 
that of the cesspool or tank to be discharged; the other half is 
generally soaked away during the flow. It is important to 
secure an intermittent flow in the tiles. If a constant driblet 
flows into them they wiU alw^ays be chocked in a short time. 
When on a larger scale, as for hotels and public institutions, 
Field's flush tank is used with success to secure this periodic or 
intermittent flow. If the w^ater supply is Hmited to w^hat is 
pumped by hand in the house, the discharge can be made by 
means of a stop-gate laid in the outlet pipe leading from the 
bottom of the cesspool, and operated by hand when required. 
The tiles adapted for this purpose are readily obtainable." 

Sewage Tanks and Ordinary Cesspools Compared. — 

It may be claimed that a slop-v^ater or sewage flush 
tank, no matter how small and how well built, remains 
in some sense and to some degree a cesspool, because the 



222 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

liquid sewage is retained in the tank until disposed of by 
surface or subsurface irrigation. But in practice it is 
found that, if such a tank is frequently emptied, properly 
cleaned, occasionally disinfected, and if the distribution 
is effected with regularity, the system will, with some 
care and a little attention, work satisfactorily and with- 
out becoming a nuisance. It requires a garden, lawn or 
meadow of small area near the dwelling. 

Examples of Simple Subsurface Irrigation Systems. — 
Two examples of cheap sewage disposal arrangements 
for smaller houses are illustrated in Figs. 72 and 73, and 




■^^00. O^s/v ^o//yr:s ^' 



rtemr/(w or^sLOPWArrp d/sposal systsm 



Fig. 72. — A Simple Sewage Disposal Arrangement. 

the methods indicated therein are so simple as not to 
require any further explanation. 

Sewerage for Village Houses. — In closely built up vil- 
lages, with no space about the house available for irrigation, 
a sewage disposal system on the premises is, of course, 
inapplicable. The only remedy in such a case is to build 
a main pipe sewer — a 6-inch pipe answers for a whole 
village of 1000 or more inhabitants — with smaller branch 
pipes to each dwelling for the removal of the slop water, 
without the admission of excreta, and to carry the sewage 
well beyond the limits of the village. 

Whether its immediate discharge into some stream be 
permissible, or whether a previous purification by sedi- 
mentation, screening, chemical precipitation, land filtra- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



?23 




224 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

tion, by irrigation or by a bacterial system be required, 
should be made the subject of a special investigation in 
each case. The earth closet near the farmhouse may be 
retained, wherever the manure can be utilized on the 
grounds, but in some cases it may be preferable to arrange, 
under supervision of the village authorities, a system of 
dry removal by tubs or pails. 

It must be borne in mind by those in search of enlighten- 
ment on this subject of sewage disposal, that ours is the 
age of constant progress in all branches of science. Other 
methods are at the present time available, and these will 
be referred to in the subsequent pages, but even in the 
light of our present knowledge on the subject the above 
outlined solution holds good for the simpler problems. 

SEWAGE DISPOSAL FOR FARM AND COUNTRY HOUSES 
AND FOR SUMMER RESORTS. 

Essentials of Health in the Country. — Sanitation on the 
farm and in the country is not less important than that of 
urban dwellings. Perhaps, however, it is more precise to 
say that it is of greater importance, for, taking into con- 
sideration the very large and steadily increasing number 
of city dwellers who annually, at the beginning of the 
warm season, migrate to the country in search of health, 
it does become obvious to everyone how very necessary 
it is that the essentials of sanitation should be secured in 
the country residence, in the summer camp, in the luxu- 
rious summer hotel and in the plain farm boarding house. 
These essentials are pure air, pure water, pure soil, and 
pure food. 

Unsanitary Conditions in the Country. — Natural con- 
ditions certainly favor healthful living in the country. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 22 5 

But on the other hand many artificially created condi- 
tions tend to affect unfavorably the health and welfare 
of the farmer or the dweller in the country and his family. 
Indeed some statistical figures seem to prove that there 
is more illness and suffering, more preventable disease, 
in the country than in the city. In many localities the 
soil is unduly saturated with water, the ground is imper- 
fectly drained, the surroundings are undesirable and sug- 
gest the existence of malaria, the house is badly located, 
the water supply is contaminated, the sewerage arrange- 
ments are of the crudest and worst kind, and there is gen- 
erally an absence of cleanliness and neatness, and on the 
contrary much dirt in one form or another. In many 
cases a non-compliance with obvious health laws forms 
the cause for the prevailing illnesses, and it is often not 
difficult to trace outbreaks of typhoid fever or other 
diseases to a general lack of sanitation. On many farms, 
flies, mosquitoes, and rats abound, and these, it is well 
known, may act as the carriers of infection. 

Sanitary Conveniences for Farmers. — A certain improve- 
ment is, however, noticeable at the present time in the 
sanitary conveniences of farmers' homes. This improve- 
ment is the natural outgrowth of the increased require- 
ments for comfort and refinement in the home. The electric 
light, the long-distance telephone, the suburban trolley 
lines, and other nineteenth century inventions are having 
an ever-increasing tendency to revolutionize modern life 
on the farm. Until recently, sanitation has been lagging 
behind, but an awakening in this direction is noticeable. 
Improved water supply and proper sewage disposal are 
destined to become important factors in the farming enter- 
prises of the near future. 



226 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

The average farmer too often entertains the wrong 
idea that such improvements are extremely expensive. 
Such, however, is far from being the case, and if kept 
within the bounds of utility, avoiding anything at all 
luxurious, the cost of the installation of plain sanitary 
fixtures is considerably less than might be anticipated. 

Surely no good reason exists why the benefits of a pure 
water supply, suitably installed under a good pressure, of 
convenient and time- and labor-saving plumbing fixtures, 
of a plain, clean and sanitary indoor water-closet, and of 
good and efficient drainage, should not be extended to the 
cottages of the farmers as well as to the country mansions 
of the rich. 

A residence on a farm, or on a country estate where 
health laws are observed and where the ounce of preven- 
tion is applied in matters of drainage, water supply and 
waste disposal, must necessarily be conducive to health 
and longevity. 

Water Supply, Sanitary Plumbing, and Waste Disposal. 
— If the farmhouse is to have plumbing fixtures, three 
things must be provided; first, an adequate water 
supply; second, safe and sanitary plumbing; and third, 
proper means of disposing of the wastes from the 
household. 

The provision of a good and sufficient supply of water 
has been discussed in the second part of the book, where- 
as the installment of plumbing appliances was briefly 
dwelt upon in Part I. The question of the safe dis- 
posal of the sewage is surely the most frequent and most 
serious problem which confronts the farmers, the dwellers 
in country houses, the superintendents of isolated institu- 
tions, and the managers of summer resorts. Notwith- 



I 



COUNTRY HOUSES 22/ 

Standing this fact, the problem is one to which compara- 
tively few people pay sufficient attention. 

Sewage Disposal. — A haphazard mode of disposing of 
the sewage is no longer permissible, for sewage not 
properly taken care of soon becomes offensive, causes a 
nuisance to sight and smell, and may become a source of 
actual danger to health if it contains the germs of disease 
and if it contaminates a well, spring or a stream used for 
drinking water. 

Many scientific experiments on sewage purification on 
a small as well as on a large scale have recently been 
made, but the results of the investigations have not 
attracted the attention nor found the application which 
they doubtless deserve. 

The sanitary disposal of sewage from buildings not in 
reach of sewers, and the means for carrying away their 
liquid wastes, must be accomplished by individual efforts 
of their owners. This problem grows in importance every 
day. That it is not so beset with difficulties as would 
appear at first sight, the following considerations will 
show. 

In rural districts, the scattered farm and country houses 
having plenty of land about them should not find it 
difficult to dispose of the sewage and liquid waste matters 
in an innocuous manner. Nevertheless, we encounter in 
the majority of cases the use of the objectionable cesspool 
and of the equally pernicious privy vault. 

Cesspools and Privy Vaults to be Condemned. — Why is 
it that in this enlightened age such relics of barbarism 
are tolerated in civilized communities? Why is it that 
for one house in the country, having a judicious and 
sanitary method of sewage disposal, we find fifty houses 



228 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

provided with the most primitive and obnoxious arrange- 
ments ? 

I believe one reason for it may be found in the universal 
and deplorable lack of interest in sanitary matters and in 
the imperfect appreciation of health laws. But why is it 
that the common cesspool and the vault are so severely 
condemned by sanitarians? 

It is an axiom of sanitary science that organic waste 
matters, and in particular household liquid wastes, should 
not be stored up for any length of time near habitations, 
because if so dealt with they soon undergo a dangerous 
process of putrefaction and thereby become the cause of 
the pollution of the atmosphere and of the soil. 

The ordinary cesspool in the country is never built 
tight. It is a large hole, carelessly excavated in the ground, 
the sides being walled with loose stones and the top covered 
with a loosely set flagstone or with a number of wooden 
boards. The liquids emptied into it soak away into the 
ground and very often contaminate the farmer's well. 
After years of use its openings become clogged with grease 
and the cesspool overflows on the surface or else backs up 
into the cellar. 

The ordinary privy vault is not any better, because it is 
rarely water-tight; it constitutes a nuisance to sight and 
smell besides attracting numerous flies, as well as mos- 
quitoes, which become quite frequently the propagators of 
serious disease. It always contaminates the soil and is 
very difficult to clean. Both the cesspool and the vault 
are relics of bygone times when no thought was given to 
sanitation. 

Burning of Sewage Impracticable. — One should not, 
however, condemn a thing without being prepared to offer 



. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 229 

a proper remedy, and this I shall proceed to do in the 
following pages. One suggested solution of the problem, 
frequently encountered when the subject is discussed by 
laymen, is to get rid of the sewage by burning it. But 
such a plan should be at once dismissed, for it is entirely 
impractical and arises from a gross misconception of the 
problem and a confusion in the layman's mind of sewage 
with night soil and garbage, which latter can be destroyed 
by fire, while sewage is a liquid containing only two volumes 
of solids in 1000 parts of sewage, and hence cannot be 
burnt. 

Waste Disposal for Small Farmhouses having no Water 
Service. — Let us consider first the smaller farmhouses, 
which do not have a water service or any of the modern 
plumbing conveniences. It would seem that in such a 
case no serious difficulties could exist. A clean and w^ll- 
kept outside earth closet forms the best available substitute 
for the common privy. It is surprising to find how little 
farmers in the country know of the earth closet. This 
sanitary contrivance has a vault with water-tight floor, 
placed not much, if any, below the grade level. On the 
floor is set a box holding garden earth or ashes. A hinged 
door at the back permits of the frequent removal of the 
box. To facilitate this, the box is set on wheels, and in 
this way it is easily drawn away to the fields or to the 
manure pit. Either dry earth or finely sifted ashes are 
used. The contents of the box are often dried in a shed 
and then used over and over again. Much missionary 
work can be done in the way of educating farmers and 
country people to the use and appreciation of the earth 
closet. 

For the slop water, which every such house, no matter 



230 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

how small, necessarily has, there is an equally simple and 
inexpensive system of disposal. House slops should not 
be thrown, day after day, on the same spot in front of the 
back or kitchen door, for this would soon cause the soil 
to become saturated and a wet, mucky and offensive spot 
would result; the sun's rays would cause foul odors to 
arise, while in other cases the foul liquid may soak away 
to reach the nearby well, or the rain water in the cistern if 
the same happens not to be cemented. 

In such houses the greasy kitchen water, and the laun- 
dry and chamber slops should be gotten rid of promptly 
by some simple form of disposal which may be accom- 
plished in several ways. A tightly covered slop barrel 
or bucket may be kept on wheels near the house; the 
slops are carried and dumped into it, and the barrel 
should be carried away to the garden when full. Here 
the contents are buried in the ground, taking care always 
to select some new spot or place of disposal so that the 
oversaturation of the soil may be prevented. 

In other cases a slop hopper is used and a small drain- 
pipe, with tight joints, conveys the slop water from the 
house to a place in the vegetable garden or in the pasture 
where it may be disposed of safely (see Figs. 72 and 73). 
Such a drainpipe conveying liquid sewage should never 
discharge into a road gutter or into stagnant ditches, or 
into shallow ponds. In some cases we find an open 
perforated trough or gutter used, or else an open surface 
gutter is built with bricks laid with open-spaced joints. 

Sometimes a grease trap is placed directly outside the 
house to intercept the kitchen grease and thereby to pre- 
vent the drain from becoming stopped up. In still other 
cases the drain from the house may be carried to a small 



COUNTRY HOUSES 23 1 

cesspool. This should be built perfectly water-tight; it 
should be emptied frequently and the liquid used either 
in the vegetable or fruit garden, or in the hothouse or 
conservatory. Many experienced gardeners testify to the 
manurial value of chamber slops. The cesspool should 
be ventilated, if it is practical to do so, but it should never 
be built under or close to a house, and should, as a rule, 
not be closer than one hundred feet to a well or cistern. 

If the house stands on high ground, sloping away 
rapidly, a cesspool may be built in the lowest comer of 
the lot and far away from the house, provided its top is 
not higher than the level of the bottom of the well. Under 
these conditions the tight bottom in the cesspool may be 
omitted to provide for soakage, but the arrangement 
should nevertheless always be considered in the nature of 
a make-shift. 

It should be the rule never to empty house slops into 
the privy vault or into the earth closet. The well from 
which the household derives its water supply for drink- 
ing purposes should be most carefully protected from 
impurities and from surface drainage. Where a rain- 
water cistern is used this should also be kept clean and 
its overflow should never connect with any drain or sewer 
from the house. Simple sanitary arrangements, similar 
to the above, should be provided in the case of temporary 
or permanent summer camps. 

Waste Disposal for Larger Farmhouses with Water 
Service. — In many sections of the country the larger 
farmhouses are now being provided with plumbing fix- 
tures, such as a kitchen sink, a set of wash tubs, a bath 
tub, and possibly an indoor water-closet. This modern 
tendency of using plumbing appliances in farmhouses, 



232 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

which was already spoken of, is much to be encouraged, 
for it is the surest sign of improvement in the sanitary 
conditions on the farm. 

In this case, too, the difficulties in the proper and safe 
disposal of the sewage, particularly if no water-closet is 
used, are not insurmountable. The ordinary leaching 
cesspool should never be used, but the house sewage 
should be conveyed by a tight drain to a flush tank with 
intercepting or scum chamber. The latter retains the 
solids and the grease, and a bent overflow pipe conveys 
the liquid sewage to the second chamber, from which it 
is discharged intermittently onto an irrigation field. 

The irrigation field should not be located too close to a 
house, nor too close to the well or spring which furnishes 
the water supply. The sewage may be disposed of either 
on the surface of cultivated land in simple trenches fol- 
lowing the contours of the land, or it may be disposed 
of by a subsurface irrigation system, consisting of a 
network of small tiles laid with open joints close to the 
surface. Experience shows that both systems continue to 
work in winter because the temperature of fresh sewage 
is sufficient to melt snow and ice in the sewage field. 

Sewage Disposal for Large Country Houses. — Larger 
country houses, institutions outside the city limits, and 
summer resorts are more lavishly fitted up with a com- 
plete water-service system, indoor water-closets and 
other modern conveniences. They use proportionately 
a great deal more water, which in turn after becoming 
befouled, requires a somewhat more elaborate and com- 
plete treatment. 

Water Pollution by Sewage of Summer Resorts. — Many 
summer hotels and large farm boarding houses, located 



COUNTRY HOUSES 233 

Oil the shores of lakes or on the banks of streams, pollute 
these water courses by discharging a large volume of 
sewage into them. They thus form a menace to the 
health of the people further downstream who may use 
the water for their water supply. Hence the arrange- 
ments for the disposal of the sewage for summer resorts 
should be rigidly inspected annually by the health authori- 
ties, and offenders in the matter of stream pollution should 
be punished. The entire sanitary conditions of such 
places often require a very careful and strict inspection, 
and no nuisances of any kind should be tolerated. 

There is rarely any serious difficulty in dealing with 
the sewage problem of such large buildings, for there are 
a number of methods of sewage purification available for 
use. It should, however, be remembered that each case 
forms a problem in itself, and no rigid rule can be formu- 
lated to be applied indiscriminately to all cases. 

Principles of Sewage Disposal. — All the available and 
successful systems of sew^age purification have a common 
principle. It is now well recognized that the microbes in 
the soil and in the sewage play an important part in 
Nature's methods for the purification of sewage. The top 
layers of the soil constitute powerful purifying agents and 
this is due to the presence in them of numberless harmless, 
or rather helpful, bacteria. These convert the waste 
matters poured into the soil into their elements, which in 
turn serve as plant food; they prevent the putrefaction of 
organic matter and accomplish the destruction of all 
elements which are, or may become, in any way dangerous. 

Biology teaches us that there are two principal classes of 
such useful microbes or bacteria — the anaerobic and the 
aerobic. These two classes have somewhat opposite 



234 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

tendencies and properties, for those belonging to the 
anaerobic group live and grow in darkness and under 
exclusion of air and light, while those of the aerobic group 
multiply and thrive only in abundance of air or oxygen. 
Experiments have determined that each group can be 
made to perform a useful function in sewage purification. 

The anaerobic bacteria serve to break up the sewage and 
to liquefy to a certain extent the solids in the sewage; 
their services constitute a preliminary treatment of the 
sewage. Afterwards the aerobic bacteria continue the 
purifying process by acting upon the partly disintegrated 
and liquefied sewage and changing it with the aid of 
oxygen into harmless elements. In modern systems of 
sewage disposal both kinds of bacteria are utilized, and 
the result of their combined work is the conversion of the 
sewage into a clear effluent which usually can be discharged 
into a stream or water course without danger of polluting 
the same. In exceptional cases, where a high degree of 
purification of the sewage effluent is called for, a secondary 
process of purification is necessary. 

Application of the Principles. — So much regarding the 
principles of purification. As regards the application 
of the principles in the so-called bacterial purification 
methods, we find that the partial purification work of the 
anaerobic bacteria is accomplished in the intercepting 
chamber, or the tight cesspool with submerged inlet and 
outlet pipes, which devices are sometimes designated by 
the more scientific term "septic " or "putrefaction" tank. 
The subsequent oxidation and nitrification of the organic 
matters by the aerobic bacteria are performed either in 
the surface or subsurface trenches of irrigation systems, or 
in the sand beds of intermittent sewage filters, or in the 



COUNTRY HOUSES 235 

stone beds of the intermittent sewage contact beds. The 
latest development of the art provides continuous trickling, 
percolating or sprinkling filter beds for sewage purification. 

The constructional features of sewage disposal works 
for larger country houses will be referred to again, in the 
next article, which describes and illustrates a number of 
examples taken from actual practice. 

Sewage Disposal for Village Houses. — All methods out- 
lined in the preceding are based upon the assumption 
that plenty of ground exists around the house. But the 
dwellings in many suburban places and in villages are not 
so fortunately located; for as these places grow in popula- 
tion the houses become placed so closely together as to 
make it necessary to give up any attempt at local disposal. 
The village community as a whole is fhen called upon to 
devise and carry out proper and sufficient measures for 
sewage removal and sewage disposal. 

Sewerage Systems. — This implies the planning and con- 
struction of a system of sewers designed to receive foul 
wastes only. The rainfall must be taken care of sepa- 
rately, and rain leaders must in no case be connected with 
the sewers. The reason for this is that at every rainfall 
the volume of sewage to be treated and purified would be 
unduly increased, and the difficulties and the cost of a 
proper disposal would likewise increase. The design of 
such a system o'f sewers and sewage disposal should be 
intrusted to expert sanitary engineers; the work should be 
carried out under their constant supervision. Approved 
systems generally consist of small lateral or "sanitary" 
sewers, with a few^ sub-mains and one or perhaps several 
main sewers, which convey the sewage to some outfall or 
to a sewage disposal plant. 



m 



236 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

Sewage Disposal Methods. — This outfall should never 
be into a ditch, brook, creek, river, stream, or lake, for the 
crude discharge of sewage into them would inevitably lead 
to their pollution. In many States, the immediate dis- 
charge of the sewage into the water courses is wisely 
forbidden by law, and I hope the day is not far distant 
when every State in the Union will have enacted such 
statute laws to prevent the fouling of streams and water 
courses of whatever description. The prevailing view 
that rivers and streams may be considered as the natural 
outlets for sewage must he corrected. It is only in excep- 
tional cases that the raw sewage can be permitted to be 
discharged into a water course having a sufficient volume 
and velocity of current to dispose of the sewage "by 
dilution." 

The common methods of sewage disposal and of water 
purification have always appeared to me to be in many 
respects not only injudicious but utterly wrong. To dis- 
charge the sewage from a town into a water course, and 
thus to dilute the sewage may be a very convenient method 
for the town, but so far as the nuisance arising from the 
sewage is concerned the method is only a makeshift, 
because it merely transfers the nuisance to the stream. 
We find in many instances a deliberate contamination of 
the water intended to be used for supply purposes, and 
which, before being so used, must be purified at enormous 
expense. Unwise and impracticable as this seems to be, 
it is just what is at the present day being done in some 
communities. 

Proper methods of sewage disposal for village commu- 
nities and summer hotels should be devised and installed, 
and the State health authorities should insist upon this. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 237 

The watersheds of lakes, rivers, and other surface waters, 
the surroundings of springs and the water in wells should 
be properly protected, and in this way the problem of 
water supply would find a solution which, to my way of 
thinking, would be much more rational and correct. 

It is true that the filtration of water, if properly arranged, 
or the treatment of water with copper sulphate on a 
large scale, accomplish much good, but they will not and 
cannot always wholly counteract the serious effects of 
water pollution by pathogenic germs in the sewage, for 
some of these germs may be left in the water even after 
filtration or after the copper sulphate treatment. 

Typhoid Fever due to Contaminated Water Supplies. — 
Typhoid fever is one of the principal diseases caused by a 
polluted water supply. There have been recently pub- 
lished, for instance, somewhat startling statistics regarding 
the prevalence of typhoid fever in the State of New York. 
It is stated upon good authority that in the nine months 
from January to September, 1905, no less than 60,000 
persons in the State have been attacked with this disease, 
this being at the rate of nearly 7,000 cases per month, 
and that the deaths in New York City alone amounted 
to over 500, and this although the disease is known to 
sanitarians to be entirely preventable. Why is there 
such a very high rate of sickness and comparatively high 
mortality rate.^ What shall be done, what can be done, 
to prevent the ravages of this terrible disease? 

Pollution of Lakes and Streams. — The fact that the 
streams of the State, from many of which cities and towns 
draw their water supply, have been contaminated by 
the discharge of sewage into them, has been known for 
years, but no energetic steps have been taken to prevent 



238 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

the pollution. This unsanitary practice should be stopped. 
What has been said of streams or running water of any 
kind is also applicable to lakes and larger ponds. The 
State health authorities everywhere should institute 
every year, before the warm season approaches, a thor- 
ough investigation of the sanitary condition of all summer 
resorts, particularly as regards their water supply and 
their methods of sewage disposal. The importance of 
such work becomes apparent from the recital of a few 
recent instances quoted from a bulletin of the New York 
State Board of Health. 

"In one hotel, situated on beautiful Lake George, the 
hotel sewage was found to be discharged into the lake hut 
a short distance away from the intake which supplied the 
hotel with water. Another hotel at the Thousand Islands 
was taking its water supply from a bay in which there 
was little or no current, and into which the sewage from^ 
hotels accommodating hundreds of people was daily dis- 
charged. A hotel on Long Island was found where the 
sewage from the hotel was discharged into a series of 
cesspools placed along the front of the building directly 
under the windows of the rooms occupied by guests. The 
cesspools were but scantily covered and the ground was 
saturated with filth." 

State Laws to be enacted to prevent Water Contami- 
nation. — Where improvements in the water supply or 
the mode of sewage disposal are imperatively called for, 
the State health authorities should insist that they be 
carried out. The general public can do much in the 
way of assisting the work of the authorities by insisting 
that the sanitary arrangements of the summer resorts 
which they patronize be free from danger to health, and 



COUNTRY HOUSES 239 

particularly that a pure water supply be provided, as is 
no doubt the case in many of the better class hotels and 
boarding houses. What is true of New York State ap- 
plies equally to other States. If their public health laws 
are not at present framed so as to provide the required 
authority to do this, it is high time that the laws be changed 
correspondingly. 

Sewage Purification the Remedy for Water Pollution. — 
Our brooks, our rivers, and our lakes should be kept free 
from pollution. No riparian owner can claim the right 
to discharge his sewage, without a previous thorough 
purification, into any stream or lake. There is a moral 
side to the question of water pollution which every citi- 
zen is bound to, or should be made to, respect. As 
pointed out heretofore, many summer resorts, some 
country houses, and a number of villages and towns, are 
the offenders. The science of sewage disposal has entered 
a stage where it is feasible to cope with the difficulties 
of the problem by providing, designing, and constructing 
suitable and efficient sewage purification systems. 

BACTERIAL METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL FOR 

FARMHOUSES, COUNTRY ESTATES, AND 

SUMMER RESORTS 

Old-fashioned and defective methods of disposing of 
the liquid and semi-liquid wastes from isolated households 
by means of privy vaults and cesspools have been dis- 
cussed in the previous articles. The evils connected with 
privy vaults are now too well known. Cesspools should 
always be considered bad and unsanitary arrangements. 
This statement is true whether they are the so-called open 
or "leaching" cesspools, or else of the type known as 



240 ' SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

"tight" cesspools, which, to overcome the difficulty and 
annoyance of frequent emptying, are generally provided 
with an overflow pipe, permitting the foul liquid to escape 
into an open ditch or into some water course. 

Land Treatment. — For many years sanitarians and 
engineers have again and again pointed out better, more 
rational, and safer methods of sewage disposal in connection 
with the "water-carriage system," such as land treatment 
by means of surface irrigation, or by intermittent down- 
ward filtration. In the former system sewage acts as an 
irrigant of the soil, and large areas of land are required 
to prevent the oversaturation of the soil. In the latter 
system the land, consisting usually of specially prepared 
and well-underdrained beds, is flooded intermittently with 
much larger volumes of sewage than in surface irrigation. 

Subsurface Irrigation. — A much-used and quite suc- 
cessful modification of the latter system is the disposal of 
sewage, known as "subsurface irrigation," which is 
sometimes designated as the "Waring" system, because 
of its having been introduced and ably advocated by the 
late Colonel George E. Waring. 

A complete description of this method of sewage dis- 
posal in its application to country dwellings is given by the 
author in his books " The Disposal of Household Waste " 
and " Sanitary Engineering of Buildings," and the reader 
will find in the latter book several examples of the system 
with illustrations. Hence it does not seem necessary to 
refer to it at length in this chapter, but later on several 
instances will be illustrated in which the subsurface 
irrigation system is combined with one or the other of the 
artificial bacterial methods of disposal. 

The method termed " disposal by subsurface irrigation " 



COUNTRY HOUSES 24 1 

has become well-known and is extensively applied in 
the case of isolated country houses. A number of con- 
tracting engineering firms make a specialty of putting in 
such plants for owners, generally for a fixed lump sum, and 
the fact should be noted that not all the systems so put in 
have been successful in the long run. This may have been 
partly due to the fact that the contractors were not suffi- 
ciently conversant with the practice of the art; it was also 
due, without doubt, in many cases to the contractors' 
desire to make large profits from a job. 

The writer holds to the view expressed by him 
repeatedly many years ago, that it is better to have this 
kind of work done on a percentage basis, or on the " cost 
plus a fixed sum " plan. At the same time he recognizes 
the fact that it seems almost impossible to combat the 
average architect's or owner's idea that a sewage disposal 
system can be bought at a fixed price, much the same as 
an automobile or a steam yacht. These remarks apply 
equally to the more recent bacteriological sewage disposal 
plants. There is obviously quite a difference between a 
cheap system put in by contract which may "just do the 
w^ork" and a system planned with much study and care, 
based upon years of practical experience in this branch of 
engineering, and carried out with skill and judgment with 
a view to its working properly for a great many years to 
come. There are, however, but few people sufficiently 
enlightened to appreciate the difference, except when it is 
brought home to them forcibly, as when the cheaply 
installed system begins to give trouble, which it generally 
does after one or two seasons' use. 

Wherever suitable soil and suitably located land are 
available the methods of disposal mentioned, which are 



242 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

also in a sense biological methods, because the purification 
going on in them is caused by bacteria in the sewage and 
in the soil, are well adapted and generally, with some 
supervision given to them, have proved quite satisfactory, 
not only in preventing a sewage nuisance but also in 
yielding an efHuent free from objection. 

Disposal of Sewage by Dilution. — In many cases, 
however, sufficient land is not available, and for larger 
buildings, such as summer hotels and institutions, the 
subsurface disposal system becomes quite expensive. 
Another method of disposal, known as the ''dilution" 
method, in which the crude or unpurified sewage is per- 
mitted to flow into a large water course, or into a harbor 
or the sea, cannot often be practiced, simple and econom- 
ical as it is. Under conditions such as described the 
more recent bacterial or biological methods of disposal 
are more adapted and promise to become universally 
successful. 

Artificial Bacterial Sewage Treatment. — These artificial 
bacterial methods comprise septic tanks, cultivation or 
upward fihration tanks, bacterial contact beds and 
trickling sewage filters, and this article is intended to 
explain briefly the principles of the methods, and to 
illustrate their practical application by several examples. 
So much has been said and written of late in particular 
about the "septic tank method of sewage disposal" that it 
would seem desirable to point out the real object of the 
septic tank, to define its general usefulness, but at the 
same time to estabhsh clearly its limitations. 

Composition of Sewage. — By way of introduction, atten- 
tion should be called to the difference in composition 
which exists in nearly all instances between town sewage 



COUNTRY HOUSES 243 

and the sewage from isolated country houses, for this has 
an important bearing upon the method of treatment 
adopted. 

Sewage, in general, is a complex liquid containing 
organic as well as inorganic matters both in solution and 
in suspension, and varying in its volume and in its chemical 
composition at all hours of the day and night. Where 
household sewage proper is to be dealt with, the variations 
in the sewage are much less than where sewage includes 
manufacturing or trade wastes, and where the rainfall is 
admitted The sewage from isolated houses consists of 
slop water, mixed with the liquid and semi-liquid excre- 
tions from men and animals. The slop water is com- 
posed of kitchen wash water, suds from the laundry, waste 
water from personal ablutions, dirty water from floor 
scrubbing and general scouring, and the drainage water 
from stables. 

This befouled liquid, which always contains a large 
number of bacteria, requires purification no matter whether 
water-closets are connected to the house drains or not. It 
should be mentioned here that, whatever the sewage 
disposal system may be, the rain water from country houses 
should never be connected with the sewer carrying the 
foul sewage. 

Town sewage, on the other hand, is apt to be more 
diluted, particularly after rain storms; it is also often 
diluted by inleakage of subsoil water, and it is nearly 
always mixed with trade and manufacturing wastes. It 
contains a good deal of inorganic or mineral matter, 
road detritus, silt and street sweepings. Such town 
sewage generally arrives at the outfall or the disposal 
works in a less fresh condition and more broken up. 



244 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

While it always requires a basket or cage screen to inter- 
cept the coarser suspended matters and a grit chamber 
to eliminate the mineral matter, preliminary treatment, 
as described further on, may often be dispensed with 
for the reason that breaking up and maceration occur 
while the sewage matter is passing through the sewer. 
In very long main sewers some septic action also 
takes place which has a tendency to liquefy suspended 
matters. 

On the other hand, the sewage from isolated buildings, 
when delivered at disposal works, is generally fresh 
sewage, because the run of the house sewer is a short 
one; the sewage is apt to be more concentrated and forms 
a good deal more scum or grease in the tanks; it also 
contains more solid organic matters in suspension. Hence 
such sewage absolutely requires some kind of preliminary 
treatment in order to liquefy the solids and suspended 
impurities, or at least to hold back the sludge which 
otherwise is sure to give considerable trouble in the sub- 
sequent purification methods. 

At the outset I should state that, since the researches 
of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, and those 
of Warrington, Schloesing, Muntz, Dibdin, Colonel 
Waring and others, we know that all sewage disposal 
processes, except the purely mechanical straining processes, 
are natural^ since they are accomplished by natural agen- 
cies, to which we only render assistance by proper forms. 
All forms of land disposal and purification are now known 
to be based upon bacterial action. In those systems 
which generally go under the name of biological or bacte- 
riological methods, we have an artificial treatment only in 
so far as we provide suitable culture or growing places for 



COUNTRY HOUSES 245 

the bacteria and thereby increase and promote bacterial 
action. The purification process itself is a natural pro- 
cess. All we do, therefore, is to assist nature, and if we 
do this wisely and in accordance with facts known through 
scientific research we shall succeed better than if we 
attempt to control nature, as for instance is done in some 
of the chemical treatments of sewage. 

Principle of Biological Sewage Disposal Methods. — The 
biological methods of sewage purification are based upon 
the fact that all sewage contains numberless bacteria, 
most of which are not only harmless but useful in acting 
upon the sewage matters in suspension as well as in 
solution. The really harmful bacteria, the pathogenic 
or disease germs, are usually small in number; some- 
times they are absent altogether, and they occur only 
where the bowel or other discharges from patients ill 
from zymotic disease, such as typhoid fever or cholera, 
are permitted to go without disinfection or sterilization 
into the sewer. 

Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria. — There are two classes 
of useful bacteria, namely the anaerobic bacteria, which 
live and grow only in absence of light and air, and 
the aerobic bacteria, which on the contrary require the 
oxygen of the air to live and perform their functions. 
The anaerobic bacteria act upon the organic matters in 
suspension in the sewage by liquefying and gasifying the 
same; the aerobic bacteria act upon the organic matters in 
solution and assist in the processes of oxidation and 
nitrification. 

Two Stages of Purification. — In the case of sewage 
from isolated buildings, sewage treatment comprises two 
successive stages, namely: 



246 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

(i) A preliminary process for the removal of the polluting 
matters in suspension (by septic or cultivation tanks, or 
sometimes by coarse contact filter beds); 

(2) A purification process for the oxidation and nitrification 
of organic matters in solution (by bacterial contact beds, 
percolating filters or by land treatment). 

In order to attain success the order of these two processes 
should never be reversed. Sometimes, in cases where a 
very high degree of purification is demanded, a third or 
finishing process is used, consisting of either land treat- 
ment, mechanical filtration or subsidence in settling 
basins. 

Formerly, the first part of the treatment, consisting of 
the elimination of the suspended matters, was accom- 
plished by sedimentation or by subsidence in tanks, through 
which the inflowing sewage passed with a very small 
velocity of flow. Attempts were also made to roughly 
strain sewage in coarse filters, or to accelerate deposition 
by adding suitable chemicals, thus converting a mechani- 
cal process into a chemical precipitating process. 

Mouras' Automatic Sewage Tank. — As early as 188 1, 
it had been recognized by a Frenchman named Mouras 
that suspended organic matters became liquefied in a 
closed tank. He designed what he called an "automatic 
sewage tank," intended for the purpose. Still more 
recently scientific investigators recognized that the partial 
liquefaction or destruction of the sewage sludge was 
accomplished by bacterial action. 

Septic and Cultivation Tanks. — In 1890 an English 
engineer, Scott-Moncrieff, devised a liquefying tank 
which he called a "cultivation tank," to which I shall refer 
again later on. Mr. Cameron, of Exeter, England, intro- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 247 

duced in 1896 a putrefaction tank which he designated a 
"septic tank," claiming that it was far better to encourage 
the growth of useful microbes in tanks than to kill or 
destroy them by chemicals. Simultaneously with him, 
Mr. W. J. Dibdin, an English chemist, came to the same 
conclusion, and argued that the sterilizing action of 
chemicals or disinfectants interfered with the second 
purification stage, viz. the nitrification and oxidation of 
the sewage effluent. 

Other sanitary experts, among them Colonel Waring, 
Lowcock, Stoddart, and Colonel Ducat worked on similar 
lines. In his many executed schemes for sewage disposal 
by subsurface irrigation in absorption tiles, dating as far 
back as 1880, Colonel Waring always used intercepting 
tanks for the retention of the solid matter in sewage, and 
the design of these was practically equivalent to that of the 
modern septic tank, i.e. inlet and outlet pipes were suitably 
submerged, and the tank was kept dark and arched over, 
so that, in my judgment, he anticipated the septic tank of 
both Mr. Mouras and Mr. Cameron. 

Septic or Scum Tanks. — The modem septic tank, some- 
times called a "scum tank" or a "putrefaction tank," 
consists essentially of a water-tight chamber of suitable 
capacity, through which the sewage flows slowly and nearly 
continuously as it is delivered at the outfall, the inlets and 
outlets being both submerged to prevent an undue dis- 
turbance of the surface or floating scum. It differs from 
the "cultivation tank" and from the coarse bacteria beds 
in not having any material, such as broken stones, placed 
in it to furnish suitable surfaces for the growth or culti- 
vation of bacteria, but both the septic and the cultivation 
tanks are similar as regards the anaerobic conditions 



248 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

maintained in them, and as regards their principal func- 
tion, which is the separation and liquefaction of a part of 
the suspended impurities in the sewage. 

Cultivation or Upward Filtration Tank. — The cultivation 
tank, as first designed by Scott-Moncrieff, consisted of 
a water-tight chamber of suitable size, with a smaller 
separate inlet chamber, the two being connected at the 
bottom by a suitable channel, covered by a grating or by 
perforated plates. On top of these, large broken stones 
are placed in the tank. The sewage passes downwards 
through the inlet chamber and thence upwards through 
the grating into the cultivation tank. There is accordingly 
an almost continuous slow upward flow of sewage through 
the tank, and the liquid escapes from the latter at the top 
by means of an overflow pipe located at the normal water 
level. The object of the filling material is to increase 
anaerobic conditions by "affording plenty of -resting 
places for bacteria." 

Some engineers hold the view that this upward filtration 
of sewage through a tank filled with a material the surfaces 
of which offer a good medium for the cultivation of bac- 
terial organisms, is a very efficient means for promoting or 
increasing bacterial action. In both the cultivation and 
the seDtic tanks the sewage is brought into a condition in 
which it is more quickly acted upon in the subsequent 
treatment. 

Septic and Cultivation Tank Effluents. — While the liquid 
effluents from septic and from cultivation tanks contain 
but little suspended organic matter, they are highly 
charged with putrescible matters in solution, and the 
liquid gives off bad odors, particularly on warm or damp 
days. It cannot be sufficiently emphasized that the septic 



COUNTRY HOUSES 249 

tank process is only a preliminary process of sewage treat- 
ment, that the effluents from septic tanks are neither clarified 
nor purified, that they contain all the organic dissolved 
matters which are the chief cause of the contamination of 
lakes and streams, and that a further purification is in 
most cases absolutely required. 

Preliminary sewage treatment has in some cases been 
accomplished under aerobic conditions by means of coarse 
contact filter beds intended to arrest and liquefy suspended 
solids. Such coarse sewage beds are, however, very apt 
to clog with fiber, lint, disintegrated paper and other 
suspended matters, and it is now considered a better prac- 
tice to remove the suspended solids in either scum or septic 
tanks, or in cultivation tanks, or by means of a combination 
of both. 

For disposal plants for isolated buildings a grit chamber 
to arrest mineral suspended matters is not usually required, 
because very little, if any, road detritus or inorganic matter 
finds its way into the house drain. 

Work of the Septic Tank. — The bacterial action in septic 
tanks is more satisfactory if the sewage is of a uniform 
character and if it is concentrated rather than diluted; 
warm weather increases the action of the anaerobic bacteria. 
No septic tank shows good results when first put in opera- 
tion; it is necessary that the process of cultivating the 
anaerobic bacteria be carried on for some weeks before 
the liquefying process becomes efficient. 

The claims that all the suspended impurities are lique- 
fied and that there will be no increase in the deposit of 
solids or in the scum in a septic tank have not been 
realized. On an average, only from 30 to 50 per cent of 
the suspended solid matters are destroyed, partly by 



250 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

liquefaction and partly by changing them into gaseous 
form. 

Size of Septic Tank. — It seems best to make the capac- 
ity of the septic tank, in the case of country houses, equal 
to three-fourths of the daily volume of sewage. If made 
smaller than this, it becomes rather a mere settling tank; 
if made too large, on the other hand, causing the sewage 
to remain too long in the septic tank, too much anaerobic 
action may take place, which is found to be detrimental 
to subsequent oxidation. But by using two septic tanks 
in series, or one septic tank and one cultivation tank 
(as shown in some of the examples), the capacity of each 
tank may be reduced. 

Open and Covered Septic Tanks. — For isolated build- 
ings it is preferable to use covered tanks, notwithstanding 
the fact that open septic tanks have been found to be 
quite efficient. The reasons for this are that it is thus 
possible to confine bad odors and to prevent a possible 
nuisance near a building; the sewage scum is concealed 
from sight; the surface of the sewage in the tank is 
protected from wind, rain, and snow; cold is better 
excluded in winter and a more uniform temperature of 
the sewage is maintained, but most important of all, 
the possible infection of food in the household by flies, 
which may have settled on the scum of the tank, is 
prevented. 

An advantage of both septic and cultivation tanks is 
that they do not require any fall, whereas all filter or 
contact beds, as seen from the illustrations given here- 
after, absorb at least three or four feet of fall at the 
sewage outfall. The flow through the tank also requires 
but very little attention. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 25I 

Gases Generated in Septic Tanks. — The gases generated 
in septic tanks consist largely of sulphuretted hydrogen^ 
marsh gas, and hydrogen; these are inflammable and 
on this account it has been suggested to utilize them. 
The volume available from a plant for an isolated build- 
ing would not be sufficient to make it worth while to 
attempt this. 

If the septic tank is located close to a building it is 
best to confine the gases in the tank, and in that case it 
may be necessary to use some caution to prevent ignition 
of the gases with the possible result of an explosion and 
injury to life. If remote from habitations, suitable vent 
pipes to outdoors can readily be arranged for. 

Contact Filter Beds and Trickling Filters. — We must 
now turn our attention to the second stage of sewage 
treatment, which aims at the conversion of the dissolved 
organic matter into innocuous inorganic compounds or 
elements. As has already been stated, this treatment 
is always necessary wherever a high degree of purifi- 
cation of the sewage is required. It is accomplished 
either by land treatment or by treatment in artificial 
filter beds. 

The action in these is largely aerobic, i.e. it is performed 
by those bacteria which require the presence of an abun- 
dance of oxygen for their work. The oxidation and nitri- 
fication of sewage is, therefore, not a merely chemical, 
but essentially a biological process. 

As early as 1882, Warrington suggested the construc- 
tion of artificial nitrifying beds or filters. In recent 
years, two forms of artificial bacteria beds have been 
used for the purification of sewage, namely: 



252 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

(i) The contact beds, which are filled and emptied alter- 
nately; and 

(2) the trickling, percolating, or sprinkling filters, over 
which and through which sewage is passed either inter- 
mittently or sometimes continuously. 

Practical experience seems to point to the fact that in 
both types the process will be more effective if preceded by 
a preliminary treatment in a septic tank, for we then incur 
less danger of the clogging of the contact bed or of the 
trickling filter. Nevertheless, scientific authorities are 
not agreed on the question whether a preliminary anaerobic 
treatment really facilitates the subsequent oxidation and 
nitrification of sewage. Some claim that preliminary 
treatment is not required in the case of the trickling 
filters, but European practice seems to confirm the oppo- 
site view. The writer holds that for a purely domestic 
sewage from isolated houses, coming to the outfall un- 
broken, fresh and undiluted, preliminary treatment is 
essential for a thorough purification, and also to prevent 
trouble from the clogging of the beds, or in the subsur- 
face irrigation disposal the clogging and stopping up of 
the absorption tiles. 

Bacterial Contact Filter Beds. — Bacterial contact beds 
consist essentially of water-tight open tanks, generally 
built in concrete or brickwork, and filled with a coarse- 
grained material suitable for bacterial growth. (See the 
illustrated examples.) They are provided at the top 
with sewage inlet and with distributing troughs, and at 
the bottom with open-jointed drain tiles and emptying 
pipes closed by gate valves. The object of the filling 
material is obviously to expose a maximum of surface 
alternately to the sewage and to the air. 



COUNTRY HOUSES ^53 

Contact beds are charged at regular intervals with 
sewage, and before doing this the outlet valves are closed. 
The sewage is then left standing in the beds and "in 
contact with" the bacteria. From this mode of opera- 
tion the name of the process is derived. After some 
time, generally a period of two hours, the bed is emptied 
and is then left standing empty for oxidation and aeration; 
this is commonly called the "resting period," and it may 
extend over from two to four hours. Afterwards the 
regular cycle of operations begins again. 

Purification Process of Contact Beds. — The process of 
purification going on in bacterial contact beds is somewhat 
complex and difficult to'describe and to define. The action 
is partly a mechanical or straining process by which the 
suspended matters, which are carried over from the septic 
tank, are arrested. It is chiefly, however, an oxidizing 
process of the organic matter accomplished through the 
agency of the bacteria. The stones composing the filling 
material become covered on their surfaces with a gelatinous 
growth which contains the bacteria. In passing over this 
the liquid sewage parts with a large portion of the material 
held in solution, a process designated by Dr. Dunbar, 
Prof. Winslow, and others as "adsorption." 

This is a very important and essential, but as yet little 
understood, part of the purifying process. The emptying 
and draining of the bed draws in oxygen with the air, 
which comes into intimate contact with the gelatinous 
growth, and thus the oxidation of the organic matter by 
the bacteria living in the same is accomplished. 

The real work of the aerobic bacteria is therefore done 
during the so-called "resting period" of the bed. During 
the filling and standing full of the bed the action taking 



254 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

place is at present still somewhat obscure. It certainly 
cannot be considered as wholly aerobic as claimed by some. 

We have seen that the regular cycle of operation in a 
contact bed is (i) filling; (2) two hours' standing full; 
(3) emptying and (4) four or more hours of resting. A 
contact bed may receive three fillings during a period of 
24 hours, but it is more usual to fill a bed only twice a day, 
as a better degree of purification is thus attained. 

Depth and Character of Filling Material in Contact Beds. 
— The average depth of the filling material in a con- 
tact bed is 4 feet, though some good results have been 
attained with depths of only 3 feet. The bed should be 
thoroughly aerated by allowing the air to find ready access 
to the interstices of the filling material. Experience has 
shown that it is a mistake to make the top layer of the bed 
of a finer material because this readily clogs up, and 
aeration is interfered with more or less. Sometimes 
aeration is accomplished by means of short earthen pipes, 
set vertically in the filter bed and projecting somewhat 
above the surface of the bed. 

Any hard, broken up material, such as hard-burnt 
clinker, coarse, sharp gravel, granite chips or other broken 
stones, are suitable for the filling. Hard coal is also excel- 
lent, but experiences with coke and coke breeze, also with 
soft limestone, have shown that these are not so good, 
being porous and subject to quick disintegration. The 
material should be free from dust and dirt, and should be 
washed before use if necessary. The size of the stones 
best adapted for use varies from one to two inches. 

Capacity of Contact Filter Beds and Mode of Filling Bed 
with Sewage. — The liquid capacity of a contact bed is at 
first about 50 per cent of the total cubical capacity, but it 



COUNTRY HOUSES 255 

soon becomes reduced to about 33 per cent, this being 
caused by the settling down of the material, the growth of 
organisms, the breaking down of the filling, and the intro- 
duction of solid matter. Nevertheless, such contact beds 
often work many years without requiring to be refilled. 

The filling with liquid sewage should be done quickly, 
hence a sudden discharge in a large volume from a collect- 
ing tank, in which the sewage has been allowed to accu- 
mulate after passing through the septic tank, is preferable 
to an irregular, slow flow directly from the septic tank. 
The sewage is usually distributed over the top of the bed, 
in wooden or preferably iron troughs, perforated with 
numerous holes; sometimes, however, the bed is filled 
from the bottom, and this seems to me to be preferable, as it 
does away to some extent with the odor from the septic 
sewage. 

Automatic Appliances for Operating Contact Filter Beds. 
— The operations of opening and closing the outlet valves 
may be accomplished by hand, or else they are done 
automatically. There are a number of patented automatic 
contrivances which accomplish this, but which will not be 
described in this article, for instance those of Cameron, 
Adams, Merritt, Shields, and others. It is claimed that 
these appliances ' render the sewage purification plant 
independent of manual attention. 

The writer's opinion is that hand operation is, in most 
cases, far preferable, as it keeps the system under more 
careful observation. He finds that all automatic appli- 
ances, and in particular those having movable parts or 
mechanisms, are liable to get out of order, to corrode, and 
then fail to work, and hence do require frequent attention. 

No greater mistake can be made than to think that once 



256 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

a sewage disposal system is installed it requires no over- 
sight or some regular attention. On the contrary, every 
part of the system, including the siphons or other automatic 
appliances, do need occasional looking after and even 
cleaning.* 

A contact bed should be carefully operated and skillfully 

* That the writer does not stand alone in this view is shown by the 
following quotations from other engineers and sewage experts: — 

FoLWELL. — " No method of treatment is entirely automatic, but all 
systems need intelligent care." 

Professor Fletcher. — " Let no one imagine that such a system 
can be left to run itself. The little attention and labor bestowed are 
indispensable and must be given with absolute system and regularity. 
Intelligent control is the necessary condition for success." 

Jones and Roechling. — " Mr. Cameron and other engineers may 
boast of their labor-saving automatic appliances for opening and shutting 
valves on sewage works, but practical workers will agree with us in hesi- 
tation as to placing entire confidence in the substitution of automatic 
machines for any large proportion of the manual labor. It was formerly 
maintained that neither contact beds nor septic tanks required careful 
superintendence, but that they could be worked by automatic machinery 
and left to themselves. This was not Mr. Dibdin's view, who after years 
of careful study came to the conclusion that they were delicate pieces of 
mechanism which required careful and constant watching. Mr. Dibdin's 
conclusions have since been confirmed by all careful experimenters." 

Frankland. — " Land treatment requires less skilled supervision than 
contact beds." 

W. J. DiBDiN. — " It is claimed for certain processes that they will 
work successfully for an indefinite period without any attention whatever, 
but' I have not yet seen one which is left to run alone without being 
watched. Why be so anxious to procure an automatic process for 
purifying waste water? No method should be proposed which will work 
without supervision." 

"No system will run itself; human agency must constantly intervene 
else neglect will spell failure." 

"The assumption that contact beds do not require careful superin- 
tendence, that they may be worked by automatic machinery and left to 
themselves is altogether wrong." 



COUNTRY HOUSES 257 

managed in order to obtain a well-purified effluent and also 
in order to prevent a gradual undue loss of capacity in the 
bed, and consequent loss of efficiency. 

Sprinkling or Trickling Sewage Filters. — The latest devel- 
opment of bacteriological purification methods is the 
percolating, sprinkling or trickling filter to which sewage 
is applied either intermittently with periods of rest, or 
else continuously. It consists of a rather deep filter bed, 
filled with a coarse material and arranged with a view 
of obtaining the freest possible circulation of air through 
the bed. The bed is composed of broken stones, which 
are somewhat coarser than in contact beds and which 
form the filter, and there are usually no side walls, 
except larger stones to hold the material in place (see 
section of trickling filter, Fig. 92). It is by far the best 
to have the entire filter standing free and exposed on all 
sides, as shown in view in Fig. 91, and the writer is fully 
convinced that a higher degree of purification is obtained 
in such filters than in those which are sunk into the 
ground in much the same way as contact filter beds. 

In this connection it might be well to point out that the 
experimental trickling filters arranged by Prof. Winslow 
and Prof. Phelps at the Sewage Experiment Station of the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and also those 
upon which Prof. Dunbar experimented at the Sewage 
Experiment Station in Hamburg, Germany, which the 
wTiter visited in February, 1907, are constructed so as to 
stand entirely free on all sides. Trickling filters for the 
purification of larger volumes of city sewage are likewise 
so arranged (see illustrated article, by the writer, on the 
Wilmersdorf-Berlin sewage purification plant, in Engi- 
neering News of March, 1908). 



258 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

A trickling sewage filter differs from a sewage contact 
bed principally in the method of applying the sewage. 
There are no valves to confine the sewage in the bed, and 
the sewage at no time stands in the bed, but it trickles 
through it all the time. 

Methods of Operating Trickling Sewage Filters. — The 
sewage does not flow onto a sprinkling filter as in a contact 
bed, but it is sprayed or showered over it, and special 
devices, such as revolving or traveling sprinkler arms (see 
Fig. 93), or in other cases fixed brass nozzle jets or sus- 
pended troughs with perforations are used for the purpose. 
The depth of the filter bed should not be less than five feet, 
and sometimes as much as eight or even ten feet are used 
where the available fall permits. The entire filter bed 
is thoroughly aerated, and the sewage trickles through 
it and passes out through underdrains placed in the 
bottom. 

The trickling or percolating filter, as it is sometimes 
called, is cheaper in construction than a contact bed and it 
is claimed by some that it accomplishes better work. The 
fears that such an open filter would be interfered with by 
frost in our winter climate do not seem to have been con- 
firmed, if one may form a conclusion from the results of 
elaborate experiments made at sewage experiment stations 
in Boston, Mass., and in Columbus, Ohio. The writer 
has recently inspected during his European trip a large 
installation of 57 trickling filters, intended for the purifi- 
cation of the sewage of 600,000 persons (a part of the new 
suburbs of the city of Berlin), which system worked without 
serious interruption from ice when the outdoor temperature 
was at 2° Fahr. (See description in Engineering News 
of March, 1908.) 



COUNTRY HOUSES 259 

Advantages of Trickling Sewage Filters. — The chief 
advantages of percolating filters over contact beds are 
that they do not clog up so easily, that they permit a 
much higher rate of application of sewage, and also that 
their purifying efficiency is somewhat greater. 

It is stated on good authority that sprinkling filter 
beds may treat more than twenty times the amount 
of sewage per unit of area than intermittent sand filter 
beds. 

Trickling filters have not as yet been applied to the 
purification of domestic sewage from isolated houses, but 
the scheme is worth trying, and in several of the examples 
below a suggestion in this direction is given. 

Several patented systems, using trickling filters, employ 
artificial means for blowing air through the filter bed 
for an intensified aeration and a better oxidation of the 
sewage, but such methods are, as a rule, unnecessarily 
expensive. An account of some of these artificially aerated 
filter beds is given by Col. Waring in his description of the 
sewage purification works at Homewood, Brooklyn, and 
at Willow Grove Park, near Philadelphia. 

Subsequent Treatment. — Where a high degree of purifi- 
cation is required in the effiuent, the liquid flowing from 
trickling filters may be purified further by land filtration, 
or by subsidence in sedimentation basins, or by treatment 
in sand or gravel filter beds. 

Applicability of the Different Methods described. — Both 
the contact beds and the trickling filters may be used in 
double series, and the beds are then called "primary" and 
"secondary" beds, and the double treatment yields a 
satisfactory and clear efiluent. This can, however, only 
be done practically where there is an abundant fall at the 



26o SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

outfall. In that case the septic or scum tank may be 
reduced somewhat in size. 

Where fall is not so plentiful, a larger septic or cultiva- 
tion tank should be used, followed by a single contact bed 
treatment. 

It may happen in some cases that there is no fall what- 
ever; in that case the sewage must be purified by septic 
tank followed by treatment in a larger cultivation tank, 
and finally with land purification by surface or subsurface 
irrigation. 

Wherever suitable land for natural treatment of sewage 
is difficult to obtain, or where the land adapted to such 
purposes is held at a very high or prohibitive price, the 
artificial bacterial purification methods may offer a suc- 
cessful remedy, but the systems should be judiciously 
planned and require skilled labor and some judgment in 
the management and control. 

Care and Management of Sewage Disposal Plants. — 
Experience with the usual types of subsurface irrigation 
systems has shown, in some cases, that in the course of 
years the absorption tiles in the disposal field are apt to 
become choked. When this occurs the sewage field fails 
to act properly, becomes sewage-sodden, and in some cases 
a nuisance is established. This is nearly always caused 
by a lack of intelligent oversight and management of the 
disposal plant. The fact that the sewage disposal system 
is fitted up with an automatic siphon discharge misleads 
owners in causing them to think that the entire system is 
automatic. No greater mistake than this is possible, for 
every part of a system requires looking after. 

While a disposal plant should be designed as simply as 
possible, so as to be operated and maintained by a gar- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 26 1 

dener or one of his assistants, no sewage disposal system 
will run itself for any length of time, careless statements to 
the contrary notwithstanding. A sewage disposal plant, 
much like any other apparatus or machinery, requires a 
certain amount of periodic attention after being installed, 
to secure continued good results. The owner of a country 
house, who buys and installs an electric lighting plant, or a 
pumping engine, a filter, or an automobile, would, as a 
matter of course, expect to have the machinery of each 
looked after by an attendant. Why not then detail and 
instruct some intelligent attendant to look after the sewage 
disposal plant ? 

The causes of trouble with sewage plants are usually not 
far to seek. When scum and grease are permitted to accu- 
mulate to such an extent in a sewage tank that the over- 
flow pipe carries them into the second or liquid sewage 
chamber, the automatic siphon discharges not only liquid 
sewage, but also some of the scum, and in this way the 
lines of tiles in the subsurface irrigation field gradually 
become clogged. Sometimes the siphon itself clogs up and, 
instead of having an intermittent siphon discharge and a 
vigorous flushing action, the sewage will only dribble down 
to the irrigation field in a small stream. This likewise leads 
to trouble with the tiles in the field. 

In the author's own experience a disposal system 
generously planned as to size worked satisfactorily and 
without the least trouble for a period of 14 or 15 years. 
At this time the gardener who had charge of the system 
began to neglect it. Although he noticed that the siphon 
failed to operate properly because it had become stopped 
up, he let the system run on in its bad condi-tion, with the 
result that at the end of the next summer season all the 



262 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

lines of tiles had become more or less choked. This of 
course necessitated the entire relaying of the disposal 
field. 

With a view of preventing, as much as possible, the 
failures, annoyances and troubles described, the author 
has in recent years designed and installed a number of 
modified subsurface irrigation systems, the modification 
consisting in increased means for liquefying the solids in 
the sewage by using septic tanks in combination with 
either coarse filter beds or cultivation tanks. In both 
cases the sewage effluent is subsequently disposed of by 
the sub-surface irrigation system. 

EXAMPLES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS FOR 
COUNTRY HOUSES. 

The principles of modern sewage treatment for houses 
in the country, dwelt on in the preceding pages, will now 
be illustrated by a number of examples. 

I. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of a Septic 
Tank, a Coarse Filter Bed a7td Subsequent Sub- 
surface Irrigation. 

As shown in Fig. 74 the sewage tank consists of a 
combination of a septic tank with a double set of filter 
beds. The septic tank is built in the usual manner, oblong 
in plan, with submerged inlet and outlet pipes and with a 
dividing wall in the center, which is intended to prevent the 
disturbance of the scum. The outlet pipe from the septic 
tank divides into two branches, each of which is provided 
with a shear gate valve, which permits the septic sewage 
to be discharged into one or the other of the two coarse 
filter beds. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



263 




I 



264 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



The filter beds are built of the dimensions shown on the 
plans and are filled to a depth of 3 feet with coke of one 
inch size and on top of the coke there was placed a layer 
of 12 inches of coarse sand or gravel. Each filter bed is 
underdrained with hollow tiles laid with open joints, and 
at the outlet of each filter bed an automatic sewage siphon 




Fig. 75. — Automatic Sewage Siphon. 



is provided which empties the filter bed when the sewage 
in the same has reached to the top of the bed. 

The efiiuent from the coarse filter bed, which already 
has a considerable degree of purification, is discharged into 
the sewage collecting chamber, built of the dimensions 
shown in the plan. This also has an automatic sewage 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



265 



siphon which empties the tank intermittently and dis- 
charges the sewage by means of the switch chamber, 
placed at the head of the disposal field, into one or the 
other of several lines of irrigation tiles. 

Various types of automatic siphons are used in sewage 
tanks, some being modifications, others improvements on 
the original form of Field's automatic sewage siphon. 
Fig. 75 shows in view a simple sewage tank siphon which 
operates without any moving parts and which has the 




Fig. 76. — Gate or Switch Chamber and Other Accessories 
OF Sewage Tanks. 



advantage that it starts siphonage very quickly. The 
view is taken from a photograph kindly supplied by 
Messrs. Waring, Chapman and Farquhar. They also 
supplied the view. Fig. 76, of other accessories of sub- 
surface disposal systems, such as the gate or switch 
chamber in the center of Fig. 76. 

Formerly round two-inch tiles were used exclusively in 
sewage disposal fields, but more recently the size of these 



266 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 





■ — 8 




Fig. 77. 



Various Forms of Drain Tiles used in 
Sewage Disposal. 



was increased to three inches, and in other cases special 
forms of disposal tiles have been designed, such as those 
shown in illustration. Fig. 77. The advantage is claimed 
for these that they have a larger sewage carrying capacity. 
The system described has worked successfully for many 
years. 

II. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of Septic 

Tank, Primary and Secondary Contact Filter 

BedSy followed by Subsurface Irrigation. 

In this problem the drainage from a large house had to 

be disposed of on a slope bordering an inland lake, the 

pollution of which was prohibited by State laws, hence a 

high degree of purification of the effluent was desirable. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



267 




268 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

The illustration, Fig. 78, shows that the sewage was 
first made to pass through a septic tank of the usual con- 
struction; from this the effluent was led onto two primary 
contact filter beds filled with coke and intended to be used 
alternately. Two automatic siphons emptied the contact 
filter beds and discharged the effluent on one of a pair of 
secondary filter beds constructed much the same as the 
first, but filled with a finer material. These secondary 
filter beds have no automatic siphons, but instead a gate 
valve discharge is provided and the sewage effluent 
runs to a series of absorption tiles for further purifica- 
tion. This system has worked well for a period of nearly 
ten years. 

III. Sewage Disposal by a Combination of a Septic 
Tanky a Cultivation Tank, with Subsequent 
Sewage Disposal by Sti^bsurface Irrigation. 

Figure 79 shows the plan and general layout of this 
system. The house is a large one and is provided with 
about eight bathrooms, kitchen, pantry and slop sinks, and 
laundry tubs. A 6-inch house sewer conveys the sewage 
to the sewage tanks. After passing through these in the 
manner described below, an automatic siphon discharges 
the sewage effluent through a 4-inch outlet pipe to the 
disposal field. This is laid out in four sections, each con- 
taining about 500 feet of absorption tiles, and by means 
of a distributing well and two diverting gates it is possible 
to use each of the sections of the field separately and 
alternately, or else to run several sections at the same 
time. 

The plan of the septic and cultivation tanks is somewhat 
novel (see Fig. 80). The septic tank is oblong and has 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



269 




VtetcrdruftJ. 



Fig. 79. — Sewage Disposal by Septic and Cultivation 
Tanks followed by Subsurface Irrigation. 



270 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 




COUNTRY HOUSES 2/1 

two partition walls. The effluent from the tank passes 
through an inlet chamber into the cultivation tank. This 
is an oblong tank filled with broken stone, and the motion 
of sewage through it is upward and anaerobic action takes 
place while the sewage stands or flows through the cultiva- 
tion tank. The effluent is gathered into a circular liquid 
sewage tank, the contents of which are discharged by 
means of the usual automatic sewage siphon. 

The system described has recently been put into opera- 
tion, and the author is going to watch the same with 
'much interest, believing as he does that an upward flow of 
sewage, which has been partially purified in a septic tank, 
will secure very satisfactory results. 

The disposal system, described in Example XI, and 
illustrated in Figs. 94 and 95, has also a cultivation tank 
in connection with a septic tank. 

In a slightly different design for such a combination, 
the septic and cultivation tanks are placed one beyond the 
other in the same axis line. Both the septic tank and the 
cultivation tank are made of a capacity of 900 gallons. 
A sump with sluice valve and 6-inch emptying pipe is 
provided at the bottom of the communicating chamber 
between both tanks, the object being to clean at intervals 
the cultivation tank by reversing the flow. Such an 
arrangement is of course only possible where the topog- 
raphy of the land permits of running the emptying pipe 
mentioned. Instead of arching the tanks over as is cus- 
tomary, wooden board covers are sometimes, provided on 
top of both tanks, which can be readily removed in order 
to expose the tanks fully for observation or for the 
removal of obstructions. 



272 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



IV. Sewage Disposal by Combination of Septic Tank 
with Four Contact Filter Beds, to be used 
alternately. 

The design of this sewage disposal plant is shown in the 
plan in Fig. 81 and in the several sections Figs. 82, 83 and 
84. The plant is intended for a large house, having an 
average number of twelve occupants, the daily water con- 
sumption being 1200 gallons. The septic tank, the collect- 



m£aM'.4rr. 




Fig. 81. — Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank and Four 
Contact Filter Beds. 



ing tank for the septic effluent, and the four filter beds 
have been planned compactly together as shown. The 
septic tank has a capacity of 900 gallons and the collecting 
tank of 1200 gallons. Each contact filter bed has a net 
liquid capacity of 300 gallons. 

This plant is intended to be operated entirely hy hand 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



273 




S£-C: 7-/CW ^-S 

Fig. 82. — LoxGiTUDixAL Section through Septic Tank and 
Contact Beds. 




sscr/OA/ /-(/ 

Fig. 83. — Cross Section through Contact Beds. 




Fig. 84. — Cross Section through Septic Tank and 
Collecting or Dosing Chamber. 



274 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

labor, shear gates being provided instead of automatic 
siphons to close the filter beds and to empty them after 
the sewage has been standing in the beds for several hours. 
The depth of the filling material, v^hich consists of 2-inch 
broken stone, is 3 feet and the bottom of the filter beds is 
underdrained v^ith 4-inch horseshoe tiles. Wooden covers 
have been provided over all the tanks; these should be 
made in sections so that they can be readily removed, and 
the covers over the filter beds should be provided with 
numerous air holes for the free admittance of air to the 
contact beds. 

A plant, such as illustrated, may be operated in 
several ways. If two contact beds only are used, two 
fillings per day would be required, for instance, in the 
morning at seven and in the afternoon at four. The beds 
should be emptied at nine in the morning and at six in the 
afternoon. In this case the third and fourth filter beds 
would form reserve beds to be used only in case there 
should be an exceptionally large flow of sewage from the 
house. It is also advisable to give filter beds No. i and 
No. 2 a rest of several weeks after they have been used for 
a month, and then to use filter beds No. 3 and No. 4 for a 
like period. 

V. Sewage Disposal by Combination of Septic Tank 
and Tricklijig Sewage Filter, with Hand Oper- 
ation. 

As stated in previous pages, trickling or percolating 
filters form the latest modification in sewage treatment. 
They have been used in many instances on a large scale 
for the purification of the sewage of towns, and likewise for 
sewage disposal for large institutions, but no instance is 



COUNTRY HOUSES 275 

on record, to the author's knowledge, where a trickling 
filter has been used for the purification of the sewage from 
a country house. The scheme, however, appears to be 
perfectly feasible and is certainly worth trying. In the 
case of trickling filters it is unnecessary to provide water- 
tight basins, such as are used with contact beds, therefore 
the construction becomes somewhat cheaper. The chief 
requirement is that the filter be well aerated, and for this 
reason it should be constructed so as to stand entirely free 
as shown in the section of Fig. 85 (see also Figs. 91 and 
92). It may, however, become necessary to provide a 
simple roof over it to exclude the rain water, and also a 
plain enclosing structure to hide the filter from sight. 

The construction should be such as to permit the 
spreading of the liquid sewage as uniformly as possible 
over the entire area of the filter. The distribution of 
sewage may be effected from a series of fixed nozzles, or 
else open gutters or suspended troughs may be provided, 
as shown. These should have a large number of holes. 
In this way the sewage is brought onto the filter in the 
form of a fine spray and trickles slowly downward along 
the broken stones which compose the filter without at any 
point forming a continuous stream of sewage. The bottom 
of the filter should be underdrained and an outlet should 
be provided for the purified sewage effluent. Sometimes 
special aerating pipes are put through the body of the 
filter as shown in Fig. 92. 

A trickling filter should not be used without the sewage 
having received a preliminary treatment in a septic tank 
(not shown in the illustration). The construction of the 
latter would be similar to that of the examples previously 
shown and the effluent should be gathered in a collecting 



2/6 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 




e'Cff/vc^^rs- 






S£CT/ON £-F 



■^<mmmim.mm 




'>e"^/«V7Ci£- 



FiG. 85. — Plan and Elevation 01 Trickling Filter. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 2// 

chamber provided at its lower outlet with a gate valve 
operated by hand. 

In many cases the layout of the land will be such as 
to render it impossible to have a gravity discharge from 
the septic tank and from the trickling filter. In this case 
the trickling filter should be placed on a higher elevation 
than the collecting chamber and the sewage should be 
pumped up automatically by means of a submerged 
centrifugal pump, operated by an electric motor. In 
other respects the system would not differ materially from 
that shown in the example. 

VI. Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank for a Large 
Btnlding or a Group of Bicildings Located 
either on the Shore of a River which is not used 
for Drinking Purposes^ or on a Tidal Esttiary 
which does not contain Oyster Beds, or 7iear tJie 
Ocea?i. 

Under the several conditions mentioned, a high degree 
of purification of the sewage effluent is not ordinarily 
required. But it is at all times necessary to prevent a 
nuisance to sight or smell at the point where the sewage is 
discharged. A simple preliminary treatment of the 
sewage may therefore be found sufficient, and for such 
cases the septic tank treatment is eminently adapted. If 
the building has an average population of 200 persons, and 
a daily water consumption per person of 60 gallons, the 
resulting volume of sewage in 24 hours amounts to 12,000 
United States gallons. Rain water should, of course, be 
rigidly excluded from the works. The capacity of the 
septic tank should be made equal to three-fourths the 
daily consumption, i.e. it should hold 9000 gallons of 



2/8 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



sewage. The septic tank is best built of an oblong shape, 
as shown in plan and section in Fig. 86, and its principal 
dimensions would be approximately as follows: — 

Total length inside, 22 feet 6 inches, 

Width inside, 6 feet o inches, 

Depth below water level, 9 feet o inches. 




mEZJAf/JVA/iY TTiBATMENT fJV 

SEPT/C TANK BY ANAEEiOB/C ACTIOM 

CAPAarY'SOOO C/SX^EL3 -%ElA/LYCQN:5UMrT/aV 

SCALE ■• IIIUIIIIHII— I ' I 1 I 1 H — I h-^ 



'''^/////////M^^^^ 




"p M to si/^r^cf U ^J 



t^ 



€ 'SA*^rr//vi? >»/>«in fl 72? ^i//?rACS 




Fig. 86. — Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank. 

The depth of excavation for the tank would be about 
12 feet. The tank could be built of brick or stone masonry, 
or else of reinforced concrete steel construction. The 



.. 



COUNTRY HOU-SES 279 

inlet and outlet pipes should be suitably submerged in 
order not to have any disturbance of the surface scum. 
To further assist deposition in the tank, three cross walls 
are built in the same, the middle one being 8 inches higher 
than the water level, and having a large opening near the 
bottom, thus forcing the sewage to pass through the tank 
in a circuitous route. Shear gates are provided near, but 
not quite at, the bottom of the tank in each of the com- 
partments to permit of the occasional emptying of the 
liquid sewage, whenever desired, without disturbing the 
bottom sludge. 

In the normal operation of the septic tank, the gates 
stand closed tight. The effluent may either pass out to 
the water course by a tight sewer outlet pipe, or run into a 
specially excavated trench, about two feet in depth and 
filled with very coarse broken stone. 

VII. Sewage Disposal for a Large Buildmg Located 
on the Sloping Shore of an Inlajid Lake. 

In this case no unpurified sewage should be permitted 
to flow into the lake, but a high degree of purification is 
required in view of the possibility of a water supply being 
taken from the lake. The water of the lake as well as its 
shores should also be kept pure and undefiled, in order 
not to prevent the use of the lake for bathing, boating, or 
fishing purposes; in fact any sewage nuisance must be 
absolutely prevented; it is further desirable that the sewage 
disposal plant be out of sight or made as inconspicuous as 
possible. 

The problem cannot be solved by using only a septic 
tank and discharging its effluent directly into the lake, nor 
can such effluent be sufficiently purified by merely running 



280 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

it through an underground trench filled with broken stone 
and covered over at the top, as suggested in the previous 
example. Some further system of purification is absolutely 
required. 

In cases like these it is advisable to provide for a pre- 
liminary treatment and liquefaction of a part of the sus- 
pended matters in a septic tank, which may be built as 
already described in example VI and in Fig. 86. As an 
alternative arrangement, a combined septic and cultivation 
tank, as shown in Fig. 80, but of larger dimensions, may 
be used. Adopting the second scheme, it is possible to 
reduce the capacity of the septic tank proper to one half 
of the former size, or 4500 United States gallons; the liquid 
contents of the cultivation tank are also made equal to 
4500 gallons. 

The dimensions of the septic tank would be 11 feet 

3 inches long, 6 feet wide, and 9 feet depth of sewage; the 
cultivation tank would be made 10 feet wide, 20 feet long, 
and the depth of the anaerobic bed in the same is made 

4 feet. The channel under the iron gratings through 
which the sewage flows upward is made 3 feet wide, 3 feet 
deep at the lower end and i foot 6 inches deep at the 
upper end. Provision is made by a shear gate at the 
lowest point of the chamber for the occasional removal of 
the sludge accumulating in the same. Both tanks may be 
covered in the simplest manner with wooden board covers, 
or else a wooden house with a light roof may be built over 
both tanks. 

After flowing upward through the cultivation tank the 
eflluent passes out through the outlet pipe, and is now in 
a proper condition for a more complete purification by 
oxidation and nitrification. This may be accomplished in 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



281 




I=U:.JLN 



3»-M.ff^ee>'eJt 




S£:CTIOI7 



COLLECT/MG CHAMBER FOB ZJQUW SEWAGE. 
T4/OBK/NG CABACITT-GOOO 17.3 GALL3 



nAILV CQMSUAdETJON. 



iSCAL^^ ^m 



O / ^ .3 -f ^ 6 ir 8 9 /O 

Fig. 87. — Sewage Disposal by Septic Tank, Collecting or 
Dosing Chamber and by Contact Filter Beds. 



282 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

one of several ways. The sewage effluent may be purified 
by land treatment, preferably by subsurface disposal, 
provided sufficient land is available. To effect this the 
effluent is collected in a liquid sewage tank, as shown in 
Fig. 87. This is a brick or concrete tank, circular in 
shape, and arched over. The top of the tank is provided 
with a manhole with iron frame and cover. In order to 
reach the several sections of the disposal field, which shall 
be used alternately, the tank is provided at the bottom 
with two outlets, each operated by means of a gate valve, 
opened and closed by hand labor. A safety overflow pipe 
is provided about 12 inches above the level corresponding 
to the normal capacity of the tank, viz. 6000 gallons. This 
may lead to some surface ditch or onto land at a sufficiently 
low level. It is merely provided to guard against negli- 
gence of the man in charge of the plant, in case he should 
forget to open the valves. The attendant is instructed to 
empty the tank twice each day. 

When land treatment is not feasible, purification must 
be accomplished either by contact beds or by a trickling or 
percolating filter, and the same kind of collecting tank may 
be used in both cases, except that it then requires only a 
single outlet pipe instead of two. 

Purification by contact filter beds would require two beds 
to purify the daily amount of sewage, and these are shown 
in Fig. 88. The liquid or net capacity of each bed is 
3000 United States gallons, or equal to one fourth the daily 
volume of sewage. The two beds occupy an area of about 
28 feet square. Each bed is filled to an average depth of 
4 feet with broken stones of i J to 2 inch size. The bottom 
of the bed is suitably drained by means of 6-inch horseshoe 
drain tiles, with 4-inch branches. The effluent pipe is 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



283 




/7AS4Z rnEATMEUT By^y^ffOBJC ^CT/OAf 
U^TTWO COATTACT FII.TIXR nEDS. 

±iQC/in CABAcmr or EA.CM bed- 

3000 US GALLS -J/^LUny CQ/^SUALPTIO/V. 

rccK 



•SCyiLS : 



Fig. 88. — Plan and Section of Contact Filter Beds for 
Disposal of Sewage from a Large Building. 



284 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

closed by means of a gate valve operated by the attendant. 
At the inlet to the contact bed the arrangement of the piping 
is such that the sewage can be turned first into one bed, 
then into the other. Normally, with two fillings a day for 
each bed, both beds are used simultaneously. 

While the usual practice is to fill a contact filter bed from 
the top, and to distribute the sewage evenly by means of 
perforated surface troughs, the bed is shown in the illustra- 
tion as being filled from the bottom, the inlet pipe being 
extended downward into the head of the bottom drain. 
This is done, as I have already explained, with a view of 
preventing any sewage smell arising from the filling of 
the bed. The contact beds remain uncovered, but should 
be suitably screened from public view by planting shrub- 
bery around them. 

If much fall is available a trickling or percolating filter 
bed can be used, and may be constructed in the simplest 
possible manner similar to the one shown in Fig. 85, or 
else like those shown in Figs. 91 and 92. A coarse stone 
filter 16 J feet square, and 8 feet deep is provided, the same 
being roughly built of brick piers at the corners, the sides 
consisting of rough wooden boards, reinforced by wooden 
posts, all put together in such a way as to hold the broken 
stone with which the bed is filled, while permitting free 
access of air to the filter. The sewage is sprinkled or 
sprayed onto the filter by means of a simple fixed dis- 
tributor, which is fed from the outlet pipe from the collect- 
ing tank, the flow being controlled by a gate valve so as to 
accomplish the proper slow dosing of the filter. At the 
bottom of the filter a layer of concrete is provided, and the 
bed is suitably underdrained. The purified sewage is 
discharged by means of an outlet drain, which has no 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



285 

and 



gate valve, into a trench filled with broken stone, 
emptying on the slope to the lake. 

VIII. In Fig. 89 is shown the view of a large septic 
tank in combination with four contact filter beds, installed 
for the purification of the sewage from the summer hotel 
illustrated in view in Fig. 35, for an average population 
of 700 people. Figure 90 is a plan of this disposal 




Fig. 



). — View of Contact Filter Beds, Dosing Chambers 
AND Septic Tank for a Large Hotel. 



plant, which was designed and its execution superintended 
by the writer. 

The photographic view shows the top of the septic 
tank, which is arched over and provided with four cleaning 
manholes. Between the septic tank and the contact beds 
are located the collecting tanks, two in number, as the 



286 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



IT 
I 



M. 



■^ 



9 




ii 



i, 



COUNTRY HOUSES 28/ 

plan shows. The filter beds are shown without any filling 
material, which was put into them after the view was taken. 

The septic tank is 20 feet 6 inches by 25 feet, and 10 feet 
deep. It has a capacity of 37,500 gallons or half the 
daily amount of the sewage flow, which is estimated at 
75, ceo, assuming 100 gallons of sewage as the maximum 
for eacli person, the number of people contributing being 
taken at 750. The septic tank is divided into two parts 
by a cross wall, over which the sewage flows when going 
from the first to the second chamber. Both inlet and 
outlet pipes are submerged. 

There are two collecting chambers for the liquid or 
septic sewage. Each chamber is 31 feet 4 inches by 
31 feet 6 inches, and has an average depth of 3 feet. The 
capacity of each collecting tank is therefore one half 
of the capacity of the septic tank, or 18,750 gallons. By 
means of gate valves sewage can be made to flow into 
either of the two chambers. These chambers are left 
open to the air. 

Each chamber is provided with an automatic sewage 
siphon which empties the chamber as soon as it has 
become filled. The two siphons discharge into a well 
or siphon chamber, provided with two distributing shear 
gates. In this way sewage from collecting chamber I 
can be discharged over filter beds No. i or 2, and sewage 
from chamber II can be discharged into filter beds No. 3 
and 4 alternately. 

The four contact filter beds are each of a liquid capacity 
of 18,750 gallons, corresponding to the discharge of the 
siphon. Each filter bed is 120 feet long and 15 feet wide, 
and has an average depth of 3 feet. The bottom of 
each bed is underdrained by a number of lines of horse- 



2SS SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

shoe drain tiles, 4 inches and 6 inches in diameter. The 
sewage is distributed on top of the bed by means of 
perforated troughs or gutters, running both longitudinally 
and crosswise over the beds. This method of distribution 
did not prove altogether a success, because the metal 
troughs were apt to warp. 

The beds are filled with various materials. Coke and 
broken stones were tried. The size of these was i inch. 
On top a layer of coarse sand was put, which afterward 
proved to be a mistake. 

At the lower end of each filter bed there is a manhole, 
in which the gate valve is set which controls the filling 
and emptying of the bed. The outlets are 6 inches in 
diameter. Each bed is also provided with a 6-inch 
overflow pipe in case the opening of the gate valve should 
be forgotten at the proper time by the attendant. Each 
bed is intended to stand filled with sewage for the period 
of 2 hours. The discharge from the four filter beds 
continues to a large manhole, from which samples of the 
effluent may be taken, and it finally empties into a river 
below the normal water level. 

IX. Trickling Sewage Filters, 

Figs. 91 and 92 illustrate in view and in section the 
arrangement of trickling filters which have been used for 
the disposal of large volumes of sewage. The dosing of 
the filter is effected by means of revolving sprinkler arms. 

The dotted double lines in the center of the filter. 
Fig. 92, indicate drain pipes placed in the filter for its 
aeration. The view, Fig. 91, shows the sprinkler in action. 
Note particularly that the filter stands entirely free, being 
built up on a bed of concrete, which is provided with 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



289 





290 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

drainage. Such well-aerated filters give a better effect 
than those which are built into the ground as in illustra- 
tion, Fig. 105. 

X. Fig. 93 illustrates a topographical plan, showing 
a sewage disposal system by subsurface irrigation for a 
large country mansion at Locust Valley, L. I. This 
house had been originally provided with a system of a 
similar nature, which proved too small for the amount 
of sewage from the house. Accordingly the sewage tank 
was considerably -enlarged, and a new field, shown in the 
plan, consisting of two sections of 10 lines of absorption 
tiles each, was put in, the lines being laid as shown. The 
work was done by contract by the firm of Waring, 
Chapman, and Farquhar, from my plans and surveys 
and under my immediate direction. 

XL Fig. 94 shows the plan of a system of sewa^^e 
disposal for a large country house on the Hudson River, 
where the field was so located that it became necessary 
to provide very efficient underdrainage, and also the 
rectification of a small brook which during heavy storms 
flooded the field. There are two sections of tiles in the 
field, controlled from the gate chamber. The sewage 
tank, comprising three compartments, viz., a septic tank, 
a cultivation tank, and a liquid chamber emptied by 
means of the automatic siphon, was similar in design to 
the one shown in plan in Fig. 80. A cross-section of the 
sewage tanks is shown in Fig, 95. The work was carried 
out by the contracting engineers. Waring, Chapman, and 
Farquhar under the direction of the author. 

For the stable and barn belonging to the country house 
described in the preceding example quite an elaborate 
sewage disposal system was installed, comprising a septic 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



291 




/ I^^^^S^^g^ 





292 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



IVATIOnV^sSEPTIC 
P>\TANK 




Fig. 94. — Sewage Disposal by Septic and Cultivation Tank, followed 
BY Subsurface Irrigation. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



293 




294 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

tank with dosing chamber and siphon, and three inter- 
mittent gravel filter beds, arranged as shown in the plan, 
Fig. 96. Two sections through the three filter beds are 
also shown. The sewage is turned onto these alternately 
by means of the gate chamber at the head of the beds. 
Each bed is underdrained by agricultural tile drains, and 
at the point of junction with the main underdrain there are 
provided inspection wells, at which samples of the purified 
sewage may be taken. The layout was designed by 
Waring, Chapman, and Farquhar, contracting engineers, 
and the work was constructed by them under the author's 
direction. 

By the kindness of the constructing engineers the author 
is enabled to present three interesting photographic views 
of the filter beds as they appeared during construction. 
Fig. 97 is a general view of all three filter beds. Fig. 98 
shows one of the three filter beds after excavation, and with 
the underdrains laid. The large vitrified pipes are filled 
with concrete and serve as piers to support the sewage dis- 
tribution pipes. At the upper four ends of the underdrains 
are shown vent pipes provided for the more complete 
aeration of the beds. Fig. 99 illustrates one of the filter 
beds as it appears after being filled with gravel. It also 
shows the pipes which dose the filter bed with sewage, 
without the nozzles and the splash plates, which were put 
on after the photograph was taken. 

XII. Fig. 100 illustrates a simple sewage disposal 
plant installed by the New York Sewage Disposal Com- 
pany at Mount Kisco, N. Y. The plan shows the location 
of the residence, of the sewage tank, and of the sewage 
field, which latter is laid out in two equal sections, each 
having five rows of irrigation tiles. 




COUNTRY HOUSES 



295 



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COUNTRY HOUSES 



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COUNTRY HOUSES 



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300 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

The tanks comprise a large septic tank, divided by a 
cross wall into two compartments, and a liquid or siphon 
chamber with Miller automatic siphon, furnished and 
manufactured by the Pacific Flush Tank Company, of 
Chicago. 

The description and illustrations are taken from a 
very instructive and well illustrated catalogue of the 
firm last mentioned, entitled "Various Installations of 
Bacterial Sewage Filters." 

Referring to domestic installations the catalogue says : — 
"It is generally desirable in the disposal of sewage from 
country residences, clubs, or small institutions to keep 
the plants covered and out of sight, and for this reason 
what is termed a subsoil system is more generally used 
than any other." 

The, operation is generally that the sewage from the 
dwelling is collected some distance away from the house 
in a septic or reduction tank, whence it flows into a 
"dosing tank," where it is held until a large quantity is 
accumulated. It is then discharged through an auto- 
matic siphon into an absorption field by means of a 
system of underground distribution pipes having open 
joints. In soils not naturally adapted the disposal areas 
should be previously prepared by the installation of a 
system of underdrains." 

XIII. Another example of a simple and inexpensive 
installation is given in Figs. loi and 102. This shows a 
system laid out by Mr. R. Winthrop Pratt, of Columbus, 
Ohio, for a private residence. The plan shows the disposal 
field to be underdrained by drain tiles, laid between the 
rows of absorption tiles, and discharging into a stream near 
the house. The automatic apparatus used for the inter- 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



301 



mittent discharge of the sewage from the dosing tank is 
the siphon made by the Pacific Flush Tank Company of 
Chicago. Similar apparatus is made by the Newport, 
R. I., Foundry Company; and the well-known engineers, 




SEWAGE DISPOSAL 

fOR BESiOENCe Of 

O.T CORSON. ESQ. 



Feo 1905. 



Columbus. 0"iO 
R WiNTHROP Pratt, £nc^ 



Fig. ioi. — Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation. 

Waring, Chapman, and Farquhar, manufacture another 
siphon of their own design. 

XIV. Fig. 103 illustrates the sewage disposal system 
designed by Mr. Wm. S. McHarg, of Chicago, for a 
number of farm buildings of an estate. 



302 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



The illustration shows the design for the sewage tank, 
which contains three chambers with baffle walls; the dos- 
ing chamber contains the Miller and Adams automatic 
siphon. The sewage is discharged into two disposal fields, 
which are both underdrained. A detail of the manner in 




ZierAiLS o^ T'^^t 



Fig. 102. — Details of Sewage Tank. 



which the disposal tiles have been arranged is also given. 
The illustration is taken from the above-mentioned cata- 
logue of the Pacific Flush Tank Company. 

XV. The example of a contact filter bed system shown 
in Fig. 104 illustrates the sewage disposal plant for 



COUxNTRY HOUSES 



303 



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COUNTRY HOUSES 305 

a Western insane hospital, designed by J. L. Flather, 
C.E., of Minneapolis, Minn. 

"This system of sewage purification," says the catalogue, 
"requires much less depth and area than intermittent 
sand filtration and is found of value when either depth 
or area is insufficient. 

"In operating plants of this type, the sewage flow^s 
from a septic or reduction tank into one or more distrib- 
uting chambers, thence through air lock feeds with 
very little loss of head into the beds in rotation, where 
it is held in contact with the filtering material, w^hich 
should be quite coarse, for a given length of time, and 
is then discharged through "timed siphons," one being 
located in each bed. 

"The Adams air lock feeds are installed in the distrib- 
uting chamber, one for each bed, and are intended to 
feed the sewage into the contact beds in rotation, filling 
each, cutoffs being used to skip any one or more of the 
beds. 

"In each bed is located a Miller * timed siphon,' 
which holds the sewage in contact with the bed for a 
given length of time and then completely drains the 
bed." 

The example shows two septic tanks, and two dosing 
chambers with Miller-Adams double alternating siphons, 
which discharge the sewage on to two contact beds which 
are called primary beds. The Miller timed siphons 
empty these beds and throw the sewage on to a set of two 
secondary contact beds, having a finer filtering material. 
The details of these automatic appliances may be looked 
up in the catalogue of the Pacific Flush Tank Company, 
from which this example is taken. 



306 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

XVI. In Fig. 105 I illustrate a sewage disposal system 
by means of a septic tank and a percolating filter. This 
was designed and executed by Mr. H. M. Reel, C.E., 
of Youngstown, Ohio. 

The upper part of the cut shows the septic tank and the 
percolating filter in section, the lower part shows the plan 
of both tanks. To the right is an illustration of the 
Miller automatic siphon used to dose the percolating 
filter automatically at intervals. 

The several bafile boards in the septic tank are designed 
to precipitate the solid matters and to prevent their being 
carried over by the siphon. 

The size of the dosing tank is quite small. The perco- 
lating or trickling filter is shown to be aerated on the 
four sides, and to be filled with washed and screened 
gravel. The dosing is accomplished by means of a 
network of pipes with a number of sprinkling orifices or 
nozzles. The trickling filter is covered over to prevent 
the spread of sewage odors. 

Regarding percolating filters the catalogue of the Pacific 
Flush Tank Company speaks as follows: — "On account 
of the rapid rate of filtration and small area required as 
compared with sand filters and also contact beds, per- 
colating filters have recently become quite popular in our 
country and abroad. 

'' A much greater depth is needed to install this type of 
sewage disposal. . . . Filters of this type are necessarily 
of coarse material and the distribution of the sewage so 
as to cover the whole surface of the filter becomes an 
important feature. The installation shown in this example 
is by means of a system of fixed spray distributors. . . . 
This type of sewage purification does not give as high a 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



307 




— ^— ' J 



308 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

degree of purification as that by intermittent sand filters 
but compares favorably with single contact beds. 

"Where a high degree of purification is required the 
effluent from the trickling filters should be accumulated 
in a second dosing tank, from which it may be intermit- 
tently discharged onto fine sand filters." 

XVII. Fig. io6 shows a small subsurface disposal 
system, designed by Mr. W. C. Tucker, sanitary engineer, 
for a house with three bathrooms, with about 20 fixtures, 
built within 60 miles of New York City. 

The system consists of a 5 -inch sewer of earthen pipe 
with cemented joints, running from the house to the 
basins or tanks; of the 4-inch pipe line from the siphon 
to the irrigation field and of the disposal field. 

The settling basin consists of two chambers, built as 
shown to contain sewage without the possibility of leak- 
age. The first basin is of sufficient size to contain one 
day's supply of sewage from the house; the second basin 
is of somewhat larger size. The siphon chamber contains 
the siphon, and it is provided with manhole for needed 
inspections of the siphon or for repairs. 

The line from the siphon to the irrigation field was 
about 60 feet long, of 4-inch pipe with cemented joints. 
The field is underlaid with a series of lines of small porous 
irrigation tiles 3 inches in diameter, laid about 10 inches 
below the surface and well covered with small broken 
stones. 

Mr. Tucker states that the cost of the entire above 
work, i.e., the tanks and the field work amounted to only 
$230. This is more than exceptionally low, and the 
author does not know of another instance where such 
work was constructed so cheaply. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



309 



Sewer rrom hoi 



Settling Basins ejid Siphon Chamber 




eoxthenwra e 





4-' main from Basins to FiakI 



Diagram of Sewage Disposal System 

, zo 40 b O. 

Scoie- '/* 



Fig. 106. — A Small Economically Built Subsurface 
Irrigation System. 



3IO SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

XVIII. A septic tank for the purification of the sew- 
age from a manufacturing plant located at Aldene, N. J., 
is illustrated in Fig. 107. The site of the plant comprises 
about 15 acres of land, with drainage to a creek passing 
through the rear of the property. The septic tank 
became necessary owing to the absence of a system of 
sewers and because of restrictions against the disposal, 
of crude sewage into the creek. 

The sewage from the works is collected into a receiving 
tank six feet long and two feet wide, and is lifted from 
there automatically into the septic tank by means of an 
Ellis automatic sewage lift. The various sewers from the 
buildings deliver into this receiving tank at a point about 
4J feet below the general level of the shop floors. The 
tank and its accessories were built so as to be as little 
exposed to the weather as .practicable and yet not to 
involve too much excavation. The top of the septic 
tank is only 18 inches above grade. In order to keep 
the tank itself properly filled without interfering with 
the proper drainage in the sewer lines, the sewage lift was 
used, and it is located, as shown, in a pit about loj feet 
deep, so as to bring the lift below the outlet from the 
receiving tank. The sewage lift works automatically, 
and the sewage cannot therefore overflow in the receiving 
tank. A by-pass is provided so that, if desired, the 
crude sewage can be discharged into the water course 
without purification. 

The septic tank is 6 feet by 20 feet, and the sewage 
is held at a depth of 6 feet 3 inches. Its size is so 
designed that the sewage will pass through' the tank at a 
very slow velocity. The outlet drain of the septic tank is 
a 6-inch pipe submerged about three feet in the tank so 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



311 




312 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

as to avoid any disturbance of the sewage scum which 
forms on the top of the liquid. The inlet to the septic 
tank is likewise submerged. 

The liquid sewage overflowing from the septic tank 
reaches a filter bed where the processes begun in the 
septic tank are completed. The filter bed is composed of 
slag or broken stone spread over the bottom of the bed 
to the depth of about one foot. 

The tanks were built of concrete. Mr. George K. 
Hooper was the engineer who designed the works and the 
sewage purification plant. 

XIX. The following is a condensed description, taken 
from the Engineering Record, of the sewage disposal 
works for a detached manufacturing plant. 

Fig. 1 08 shows a general plan of the works, which 
are located on low, flat grounds on the outskirts of 
the city of Newark, N. J. They occupy an area of 
several acres and comprise a number of brick build- 
ings, mostly one story in height. Adjoining the main 
factory there is an office building, and in the rear a 
two-story power house. All the buildings are served by 
one central water supply and by one sewage disposal 
system. 

The rain-water from the roofs and the waste water from 
the lavatories are carried in one 15 -inch earthenware pipe 
channel about 400 feet long, which discharges on the 
surface of a swamp. 

The drainage from the water-closets is collected in three 
separate lines of 5-inch cast iron pipe, laid with a grade of 
one-eighth inch to the foot, which pipes are carried in 
trenches outside the building to a collecting tank 100 feet 
away from the factory. At every change in direction in 



COUNTRY HOUSES 313 

the sewer line there is a cleanout made accessible by a 
brick pit or vault, with cast-iron cover. 

The tank is 6 J feet by 7 feet on the inside, and 15 feet 
deep. The bottom is of concrete, 18 inches thick, the 









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PLAN OF WORKS AND SEWERS 

Fig. 108. — Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Irrigation for a 
Manufacturing Plant. 

walls are of brick, and the top of reinforced concrete 
4 inches thick. 

At one side of the tank is the 2\ by 6 J foot chamber, 
9 feet deep, in which there is a 2 horse-power electric 
motor driving a 3-inch centrifugal pump. The pumping 



314 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

is started and stopped automatically. The walls of this 
tank are of brick, and into them and the concrete floor 
is built a waterproof course consisting of six thicknesses 
of tar paper laid in hot asphalt. 

As the pump suction and delivery pipes are both below 
the water line, they pass through the walls with a double 
flange union screwed up tight on a vertical sheet of 
5-pound lead 3 feet square which acts as a flashing and is 
built in the waterproofing with three sheets of tar paper 
on each side. 

The motor is covered by a wooden house and communi- 
cates through a sliding door with the tank. The pump 
discharge pipe is about 250 feet long and terminates in 
a double Y fitting from which three valved branches 
radiate. Each branch terminates in a perforated header 
about 50 feet long, from which the sewage is discharged 
on to the surface of an irrigation field of two acres, where 
crops of Italian rye grass are to be cultivated. 

The field is subdrained by ten lines of 2-inch agricul- 
tural tiles about 150 feet long, laid with open joints, about 
4 feet below the surface of the ground. The effluent 
from these pipes discharges into the swamp, where it is 
expected that it will be inoffensive. The drainage system 
was laid out and supervised by the firm of Walker and 
Stidham, engineers. 

XX. The sewage from the house, illustrated in Fig. 68 
(Part II), estimated at a maximum daily flow of 1000 
gallons, is conveyed through a 6-inch earthenware sewer 
pipe, about 600 feet long, to a series of settling basins, 
located about 50 feet below the level of the house. Fig. 109 
shows the sewage settling basins in plan and in cross- 
section. The main sewer pipe is laid with a uniform 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



315 



grade and with a straight alignment between the manholes 
On this line of house sewer there are provided four brick 
manholes at points where it is convenient to change the 
direction and the grade. The settling basins are circular, 
with brick walls and concrete bottom and with iron cor- 




5iphon. 
C^hamber. 

i'Overfiow. 



Portland Cement Coating. 



•ffonzontai Section 
Sewage SetMing Basins 

Fig. 109. — Sewage Tanks for House. 



poration manhole frames and covers, supported on iron 
rail beams. They are built on a side hill, as shown in 
section, and their bottoms are offset to conform to the 
slope of the surface. The water overflows freely from 
the highest settling basin, where it is received into the 
twin siphon chambers and accumulates there until it 
fills them to the level required to operate the discharging 



3i6 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



siphons, which automatically deliver the sewage to the 
respective irrigation fields. Each of the basins is pro- 
vided with an emptying pipe by which most of the liquid 
sewage can be drawn off, and has manholes through which 
the accumulated solid matter can be removed. 




irrigation rield. 

Fig. iio. — Layout of Subsurface Tiles in Sewage Disposal 
Field. 



The effluent sewage from the settling basins is disposed 
of by intermittent filtration upon two disposal fields. It 
is carried through two 4-inch iron pipes to a valve chamber, 
where it branches into two 5-inch clay pipes laid with 
cement joints and cross-connected, so that the whole 
discharge from both flush tanks or the discharge from either 
flush tank may be diverted to either field. The valve 
chamber allows the sewage to be alternated between the 
fields so that they can be rested and dried out whenever 
desired. These pipes are connected to the distribution 
system, which disposes of the sewage at a depth of about 
10 inches below the surface of the soil. As the irrigation 
fields have a surface slope of about i in 5, the main delivery 
pipes are laid with special connections making a drop 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



317 



every 5 feet (see Fig. no), and between these points the 
pipe is level. At each drop a covered handhole is pro- 
vided to give access to the interior of the pipe for inspec- 
The lateral branches are taken out 



tion and cleaning. 




From Cow StabU 



SECTION 
FLUSH TANK FOR STABLE DRAINAGE 



Fig. III. — Sewage Tank and Disposal Field for Stable. 



though Y's between these points. All branches are 
about 100 feet long, are open at the outer end and are 
composed of 3-inch irrigation tile laid with gutters and 
caps, made with open joints and surrounded with broken 
stones. The entire disposal field is underdrained to a 
depth of 5 feet. 



3l8 SEW^E DISPOSAL OF 

The road drainage, the rainfall runoff and the discharge 
from the roof leaders, are all received and conveyed by 
a system of catch basins and clay pipes from 3 to 6 inches 
in diameter, laid with cemented joints, and disposed of by 
surface filtration at various points. 

The sewage from the stable is estimated at 600 gallons, 
and is disposed of also by the irrigation method at the 
points shown in Fig. 68. The sewage is received in a 
brick settling basin with domed top, from which it? over- 
flows into a second similar basin, and is thence inter- 
mittently discharged by an automatic siphon to the 
irrigation field in a similar manner to that provided for 
the house system except that the field is not arranged in 
duplicate. The settling basins have a concrete bottom 
and iron manhole covers, and are plastered inside and out 
with Portland cement mortar as shown in Fig. in. The 
irrigation field is on a hill slope and the tiles are of the 
ordinary pattern leading from a main with the vertical 
drops described. 

Mr. Albert L. Webster was the consulting engineer 
who designed and superintended the construction of these 
sewage disposal works. 

XXI. Fig. 112 illustrates the general plan of a small 
plant for the purification of sewage at Essex Fells, N. J., 
and is an interesting and useful example of a satisfactory 
and economical method of treatment. Essex Fells is a 
picturesque residential district in New Jersey, populated 
chiefly by business men from New York. 

Originally this settlement of houses had a small dis- 
posal plant designed with the best practice obtaining at 
the date of installation. Briefly described, the plant 
consisted of a circular grit chamber 18 feet in diameter 



COUNTRY HOUSES 



319 




320 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

and II feet in depth, to which the sewage flowed by 
gravity, and in this tank the heavier matters settled to the 
bottom. From it the sewage passed into a rectangular 
chamber, 30 feet in length by 15 feet in width, and 8 feet 
deep. At the end of this chamber was located a Rogers- 
Field automatic siphon. This discharged the contents 
of the "dosing tank" intermittently through a lo-inch 
pipe on to one or other of two filter beds. These filters 
were composed of coarse sand found near-by, five feet in 
depth. The beds were well underdrained and inclosed 
by earth banks. The upper bed had an area of a little 
less than one-eighth acre, the lower one a little less than 
one-sixth acre. The beds were designed to handle about 
20,000 gallons of crude sewage per day. By means of 
sluice gates the flow of sewage could be changed from one 
bed to the other as desired. The underdrains discharged 
into a small stream passing through private gardens, 
and it was therefore important that the stream should be 
kept free from contamination. 

When the population of the district increased, and 
the daily volume of sewage to be treated became larger, 
it was found, despite constant manual attention, impossible 
to prevent an accumulation of impurities in the sand 
beds, which became choked and water-logged, or "sewage 
sick." 

A firm of sanitary engineers called into consultation 
decided not to increase the number or size of the filter 
beds, but instead to adopt more modern methods of 
disposal. 

Accordingly the old plant was changed into a modified 
one, having oxidizing or mineralizing beds, or in other 
words, the contact bed system. A slight change was made 



COUNTRY HOUSES 32 1 

in the old dosing tank, and two contact beds were con- 
structed, each 35 feet by 50 feet, and 3 feet in depth. A 
deep baffle board was placed across the inlet to the grit 
chamber and another across the outlet end of the rectan- 
gular tank with a weir, over which the sewage falls instead 
of being emptied by a siphon. In this way the dosing 
tank was changed into a "septic tank." A lo-inch carrier 
conveys the septic sewage to a distributing chamber 
constructed at the entrance to the two contact beds. Here 
a very ingenious device, known as the "air-lock" method 
is employed. It is automatic and has no moving parts, 
but differs from a siphon by not requiring any fall. By 
this device each of the beds is filled alternately. 

The principle upon which this method of automatic 
operation is based was first worked out in England by 
Mr. Adams, C.E., but it was modified in this country by 
Mr. Albert Priestman, of Philadelphia, Pa., who designed 
the above sewage disposal plant, and from whose descrip- 
tion I have condensed my own. In the conclusion of 
his very readable article in " House and Garden," he states 
"the use of the present combination of processes requires 
less area than the former method, while it is capable of 
taking care of the continually increasing volume of sewage 
for many years to come. It is also more automatic in 
operation, seeing that it is not necessary to manipulate 
any valves by hand, except at infrequent intervals." 

XXII. Some years ago a small sewage disposal plant 
was built at the Eastern Indiana Hospital for the Insane, 
which contained then a population of about 800 persons, 
and used an. average daily amount of water estimated at 
80,000 United States gallons. 

Formerly the sewage w^as discharged directly into a 



322 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

stream about 1500 feet away, but the stream had a very 
small dry-weather flow, and the presence of the sewage 
became quite noticeable for a distance of two miles down 
stream. A septic tank was finally adopted for over- 
coming the nuisance, and the system has been described 
by Prof. R. L. Sackett in a paper read before the Indiana 
Engineers' Society. 

The sewage enters the septic tank through a goose neck, 
and is discharged into a grit chamber, through which it 
flows into the septic tank proper. Here it stands at a 
depth of from 6 to 8 feet, and for a period which seems to 
secure the best action of the bacteria. The structure, 
which is 67 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 10 feet deep, is 
built of Portland cement concrete. In order to render 
the walls waterproof a coating of cement mortar was 
troweled over the interior surface exposed to the water. 
Various valves are provided, by means of which the 
chambers are cleaned and the sludge discharged on the 
ground. The tank is housed in and has a slate roof. 

From the tank the sewage is led into a so-called dosing 
chamber, which contains special apparatus, made by 
W. S. Shields, C.E., of Chicago, to discharge a quantity 
of the sewage automatically through pipe lines on to four 
filter beds. Each of the filter beds is 100 feet square. 
To each bed there are three cypress troughs with side 
openings, which distribute the sewage over the bed. 
The sewage as it goes on the beds shows only a slight 
milkiness in color, and the solids are not visible to the 
naked eye, except on closer examination. The ground 
was graded to proper form, and a grillage of farm tile 
was laid, leading to a 12-inch main drain pipe, which 
discharges into the creek. A layer of coarse gravel was 



COUNTRY HOUSES 323 

placed on the tile drains, and 3 feet of bank gravel, 
practically unscreened but uniform in quality, completed 
the filters. A concrete wall surrounds the whole, and 
gravel walks divide the area into four equal beds. 

Bacterial analyses showed over one million bacteria 
per cubic centimeter in the raw sewage, 40,000 in the 
effluent from the septic tank, and about 20,000 in the 
liquid after passing the filter bed. When the thermometer 
stood at 5 degrees Fahr. below zero, the temperature 
of the sewage thawed the frozen ground slowly, and at 
no time was the operation interfered with by freezing, 
even when the temperature was 20 degrees Fahr. below 
zero. 

XXIII. From a catalog of the Cameron Septic Tank 
Co., from which the illustration (Fig. 113) of a typical 
septic tank installation is taken, I quote the following 
description of the system : — 

"The Cameron septic tank system of sewage disposal 
consists of a tank of suitable dimensions, and so arranged 
that a mass of putrefactive organisms or anaerobies are 
developed therein of a character and quantity sufficient to 
liquefy the solid matter of the flowing sewage. It involves 
the complete separation of the anaerobic or putrefactive 
germs from the aerobic or nitrifying organisms, so that the 
work of both is performed unimpeded by the presence of the 
other; the septic tank is the workshop of the anaerobies, where 
ideal conditions are provided for their development and 
activity, i.e. the absence of air, light, and agitation; while in 
the contact or filter beds these conditions are completely 
reversed, and an ideal home for the development and activity 
of the aerobics is provided. The result accomplished by the 
Cameron process is the liquefaction and purification of sewage 
.on a practical and efficient scale ' avoiding the formation of 
sludge.' " 



324 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 



•3-a UOI>30S 




COUNTRY HOUSES 32$ 

" It may be divided into three periods: 

1. The septic, liquefying, putrefactive or anaerobic 

period ; 

2. Aerating period; 

3. Filtering, aerobic, oxidizing or nitrifying period. 

"The first of these, or the septic period, involves two 
stage? : 

A. The maturing or ripening stage; 

B. The Hquefying stage. 

"The length of time that the maturing or ripening stage 
will take to develop varies, because it will depend on the char- 
acter of the sewage to be dealt with and other varying con- 
ditions, but with an average sewage under normal conditions, 
substantial septic action will not be completely estabhshed in 
less than from six to twelve weeks, and during this time there 
wnll be a rapid but decreasing accumulation of solids in the 
tank. When the maturing stage is complete, and septic 
action established, an equilibrium exists between the incom- 
ing solids and the anaerobic bacterial action set up in the 
tank; this constitutes the liquefying stage, and as a result of 
this Hquefaction practically no more solids accumulate. 

"We come now to the second or aerating period. As the 
liquid effluent leaves the septic tank it is impregnated with 
gases produced by anaerobic action or putrefaction, and has a 
shght odor; to release these gases which are inimical to aero- 
bic action, the effluent is exposed to air and light in thin films, 
and as the gases escape during this exposure or aeration, a 
corresponding volume of air is absorbed, so that not only are 
the anaerobies and aerobies entirely separated, but the effluent 
is put in the best possible condition for the third or final period 
referred to above. 

"The nature of this last operation will depend on the char- 
acter of the outlet, and degree of purity desired; where the 
volume of sewage is small compared with the stream or other 
body of water into which it is discharged, or when a high 



326 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF 

degree of purification is considered unnecessary, the tank 
effluent may be discharged without further treatment; when, 
on the other hand, a higher degree of purification is essential, 
local conditions will determine whether aerobic bacterial 
contact, sand filtration, or irrigation shall be resorted to, and 
to what extent. 

"Aerobic bacterial contact consists of two or more beds, 
constructed preferably of concrete, so as to be made water- 
tight, and filled with suitable material, such as coke breeze, 
cinders, or furnace slag, screened and freed from dust and 
particles. They are filled alternately, allowed to stand full 
from one to three hours and then emptied by means of suit- 
able valves; as the sewage leaves the bed the air is drawn 
down into the interstices of the filtering material, so that it is 
thoroughly aerated before being again filled. This alternate 
fiUing, emptying, and aeration is controlled by an automatic 
alternating gear, so that the operation is not dependent upon 
the fideHty and vigilance of an attendant. Sand filtration 
and irrigation, the other methods of subsequent treatment, 
are too well known and understood to need explanation. 

" It is impossible to lay down exact rules defining the dimen- 
sions and proportions of septic tanks, or as to the most desir- 
able method for the subsequent treatment of the tank effluent; 
these are matters that depend not only on the character of 
the sewage to be dealt with, but also on the nature of the 
outlet and local conditions generally For these reasons, 
each case must be considered independently in order that 
due benefit may be derived from any natural advantages that 
may exist locally as affecting the efficiency or economy of an 
installation." 

If I understand the claims of the Cameron system 
rightly, it is asserted that the septic tank liquefies all 
the solids in the sewage. Experience with such tanks 
has shown that the claims are by no means fulfilled. 

I think it is of importance to point out that Cameron 
himself considered the septic tank process merely as a 



N, 



!^ 



VAf 




TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP OF PART OF COUNTRY ESTATE, SHOWING PROPOSED SCHE_MES FOR SF.WAGF, DISPOSAL. 



COUNTRY HOUSES 327 

preparatory process, or the first stage of purification. 
The examination of Fig. 113, showing a typical sewage 
treatment installation according to the Cameron system, 
makes it evident that he considers the second stage of 
purification by contact beds, as shown, necessary to 
obtain good results. 

XXIV. The folding Plate illustrates part of an elabo- 
rate plan prepared by the firm of Waring, Chapman & 
Farquhar, showing several schemes for the disposal of the 
sewage for a very large country mansion, and for the 
stable, conservatory, and other minor buildings attached 
to the estate. Only the mansion is shown here. 

Scheme A proposed a sewage disposal plant by the 
" Waring " subsurface irrigation system. The sewage tanks 
are located east of the mansion, at a distance of about 
350 feet, and consist of settling tank, flush tank with 
automatic siphon, and gate chamber to distribute the 
sewage into either of two fields, each comprising 10 lines 
of absorption drains, each line being about 150 feet 
long. 

The objection made to this scheme was that the sewage 
field was located within about 100 feet of the main drive 
and approach to the mansion, and it was accordingly not 
carried out. 

Scheme B contemplated a similar disposal system, to 
be located about 550 feet north of the house, but this 
also was rejected. 

Scheme C, w^hich w^as the one adopted by the owner, 
illustrates the arrangement of a sewage disposal system 
by surface irrigation. In this case the tanks are placed 
300 feet west of the house, and the disposal is by means 



328 SEWAGE DISPOSAL OF COUNTRY HOUSES 

of three sections, caoh having ten surface outlets. The 
field for sewage irrigation is placed about 400 feet away 
from and about 100 feet above a brook, and it is expected 
that the sewage will have entirely soaked into the ground 
and have been purified before any part of it could reach 
the brook. 



A LIST OF BOOKS 



ON 



Sewerage and Sewage Disposal. 




ADAMS, JULIUS W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts with 
Rules and Formulas for the Determination of their Dimensions 
under All Circumstances. Xinth Edition. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 
236 pp. New York, 1902 $2 . 50 

BAK^ER, M. N. British Sewage Works and Notes on the Sewage Farms 
of Paris and on Two German Works. Svo., cloth, 150 pp. New 
York, 1904 $2.00 

Sewerage and Sewage Purification. Fourth Edition, revised and 

enlarged. IGmo., boards, 161 pp. (Van Nostrand Science Series 
No. IS.) New York, 1907 50 cents 

BARWISE, SIDNEY. The Purification of Sewage. Being a Brief Account 
of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purification and Their Appli- 
cation. Second Edition, revised. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 220 pp. 
New York, 1904 Net, S3 . 50 

DIBDIN, W. J. The Purification of Sewage and Water. Third Edition, 
revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 415 pp. New 
York, 1903 S6.50 

DUNBAR, Dr. Principles of Sewage Treatment. Translated by H. T. 
Calvert, 147 Illustrations. Svo., cloth, 304 pp. London 
1908 Net S4.50 

FOLWELL, A. PRESCOTT. The Designing, Construction, and Mainte- 
nance of Sewerage Systems. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. 
Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 469 pp. New York, 1908 $3.00 

FOWLER, GILBERT J. Sewage Works Analysis. Illustrated. 12mo., 
cloth, 143 pp. New York, 1902 $2 .00 



GERHARD, W. P. The Disposal of Household Wastes. Second Edition 
Illustrated. 16mo., boards, 195 pp. (Van Nostrand Science 
Series No. 97.) New York, 1904 50 cents 

The Sanitation, Water Supply, and Sewage Disposal of Country 

Houses. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth, 346 pp. New York 
1909 Net, $3.00 

MARTIN, ARTHUR J. The Sewage Problem : A Review of the Evidence 
Collected by the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal. 12mo., 
cloth, 379pp. London, 1905 Net, $3.50 

MERRIMAN, M. Elements of Sanitary Engineering. Third Edition, re- 
vised and enlarged. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 250 pp. New 
York, 1906 Net, $2 .00 

MOORE, E. C. S. Sanitary Engineering. A Practical Treatise on the 
Collection, Removal, and Final Disposal of Sewage, and the Design 
and Construction of Works of Drainage and Sewerage, etc. 534 
Illustrations. 70 Folding Plates. 8vo., cloth, 625 pp. New 
York, 1898. . ■. Net, $5.00 

OGDENf H. N. Sewer Construction. 192 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 
347 pp. New York, 1908 $3.00 

Sewer Design. 54 Illustrations. 5 Plates. 12mo., cloth, 245 pp. 

New York, 1907 $2 .00 

RAFTER, GEORGE W. The Treatment of Septic Sewage. Second Edition. 
16mo., boards, 140 pp. (Van Nostrand Science Series No. 118.) 
New York, 1907 50 cents 

RAFTER, G. W., and BAKER, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United 

States. 116 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 598 pp. New York. .$6.00 

RAIKES, HUGH P. The Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Sew- 
age Disposal Works. Being a Practical Guide to Modern Methods 
of Sewage Purification. 72 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 430 pp. 
New York, 1908 Net, $4.00 

RIDEAL, SAMUEL. Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage. 
Third Edition, enlarged. 58 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 367 pp. 
New York, 1907 $4.00 



SCOBLE, HERBERT T. Land Treatment of Sewage: A Digest of the 
Reports made to the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal by 
their Specially-appointed Officers. 4to., cloth, SO pp. London 
and New York, 1908 $2 .00 

SLATER, J. W. Sewage Treatment, Purification and Utilization. Illus- 
trated. Svo., cloth, 270 pp. London, 1897 $2.25 

STALEY, C, and PIERSON, G. S. The Separate System of Sewerage: Its 
Theory and Construction. Third Edition, revised and enlarged, with 
a chapter on Sewage Disposal. Illustrated. 8vo., cloth, 336 pp. 
New York, 1899 $3 .00 

THUDICHUM, G. Simple Methods of Testing Sewage Effluents for Works 
Managers, Surveyors, and Others. 16mo., cloth, 60 pp. London, 
1905 Net, $1.00 

VENABLE, W. M. Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sew- 
age. 43 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 242 pp. New York, 1908 . .$3 .00 

VERNON-HARCOURT, L. F. Sanitary Engineering with Respect to Water 

Supply and Sewage Disposal. 287 Illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 419 
pp. New York, 1907 $4.50 

WANKLYN, J. A., and COOPER, W. J. Sewage Analysis. A Practical 
Treatise on the Examination of Sewage and the Effluents from Sew- 
age. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth, 230 pp. London, 1899. .Net, $2.00 

WARING, GEO. E. Modem Methods of Sewage Disposal for Towns, Pub- 
lic Institutions and Isolated Houses. Third Edition. Illustrated. 
12mo., cloth, 259 pp. New York, 1903 $2 .00 

Sewage and Land Drainage. Fourth Edition. Illustrated. 4to., 

cloth, 400 pp. New York $6.00 

Any book in this list will be sent postpaid to any part of the world on 
receipt of price, by 

D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Ipubli9ber6 anJ) Boofeeellere, 

23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets, NEW YORK. 



Works by Wm. Paxil Gerhard, C. E. 



Works on Plumbing and House Drainage. 

House Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing. Illustrated. 

Thirteenth edition. Price, 50 cents. 
Recent Practice in the Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. 

Second edition. Price, 50 cents. 
Sanitary Engineering of Buildings. Illustrated. First edition. 

Price, $5.00. 
Guide to Sanitary Inspections. Fourth edition. Price, ^1.50. 
The Superintendence of Piping Installations in Buildings 

(Sanitary, Hydraulic and Gas). Price, ^1.00. 

Works on Fire Prevention and Theatre Safety. 

The Prevention of Fire, chiefly with reference to Hospitals and 
Asylums. Second edition. Price, 60 cents. 

Theatre Fires and Panics: Their Causes and Prevention. 
First edition. Price, ^1.50. 

Theatres : Their Safety from Fire and Panic; Their Com- 
fort AND Healthfulness. First edition. Price, ^i.oo. 

Works on Sanitation of Public Buildings. 

The Sanitation of Public Buildings (Hospitals, Theatres, 
Churches, Schools, Markets and Abattoirs). First edition. 
Price, ^1.50. 

Modern Baths and Bath Houses. Illustrated. First edition. 
Price, ^3.00 net. 

Works on Gas^Lighting Installations. 

Gas Lighting and Gas Fitting. Third edition. Price, 50 

cents. 
The American Practice of Gas Piping and Gas Lighting 

in Buildings. First edition. Price, ^3.00. 

Works on Water Supply and Sewage Disposal of 
Country Houses. 

The Disposal of Household Wastes. Second edition. Price, 

50 cents. 
The Sanitation, Water Supply and Sewage Disposal of 

Country Houses. Illustrated. First edition. Price, ^2.00. 

Works on the Study and Practice of Sanitation and 
Sanitary Engineering. 

Sanitation and Sanitary Engineering: Tite Profession 
AND its Practice. Second edition. Price, net, ^1.50. 



